Electronics

ECU Components

2010-06-08T02:25:00.002-07:00

The processor is packaged in a module with hundreds of other
components on a multi-layer circuit board. Some of the other
components in the ECU that support the processor are:

* Analog-to-digital converters - These devices read the
outputs of some of the sensors in the car, such as the oxygen
sensor. The output of an oxygen sensor is an analog voltage,
usually between 0 and 1.1 volts (V). The processor only
understands digital numbers, so the analog-to-digital
converter changes this voltage into a 10-bit digital number.

* High-level digital outputs - On many modern cars, the
ECU fires the spark plugs, opens and closes the fuel
injectors and turns the cooling fan on and off. All of these
tasks require digital outputs. A digital output is either on
or off -- there is no in-between. For instance, an output for
controlling the cooling fan might provide 12 V and 0.5 amps
to the fan relay when it is on, and 0 V when it is off. The
digital output itself is like a relay. The tiny amount of
power that the processor can output energizes the transistor
in the digital output, allowing it to supply a much larger
amount of power to the cooling fan relay, which in turn
provides a still larger amount of power to the cooling fan.

* Digital-to-analog converters - Sometimes the ECU has to
provide an analog voltage output to drive some engine
components. Since the processor on the ECU is a digital
device, it needs a component that can convert the digital
number into an analog voltage.

* Signal conditioners - Sometimes the inputs or outputs
need to be adjusted before they are read. For instance, the
analog-to-digital converter that reads the voltage from the
oxygen sensor might be set up to read a 0- to 5-V signal, but
the oxygen sensor outputs a 0- to 1.1-V signal. A signal
conditioner is a circuit that adjusts the level of the
signals coming in or out. For instance, if we applied
a signal conditioner that multiplied the voltage coming from
the oxygen sensor by 4, we'd get a 0- to 4.4-V signal, which
would allow the analog-to-digital converter to read the
voltage more accurately.

* Communication chips - These chips implement the various
communications standards that are used on cars. There are
several standards used, but the one that is starting to
dominate in-car communications is called CAN (controller-area
networking). This communication standard allows for
communication speeds of up to 500 kilobits per second (Kbps).
That's a lot faster than older standards. This speed is
becoming necessary because some modules communicate data onto
the bus hundreds of times per second. The CAN bus
communicates using two wires.

Advanced Diagnostics

Another benefit of having a communications bus is that each
module can communicate faults to a central module, which
stores the faults and can communicate them to an off-board
diagnostic tool.

This can make it easier for technicians to diagnose problems
with the car, especially intermittent problems, which are
notorious for disappearing as soon as you bring the car in
for repairs.

Car Computers

2010-06-08T02:25:00.001-07:00

Each year, cars seem to get more and more complicated. Cars
today might have as many as 50 microprocessors on them.
Although these microprocessors make it more difficult for you
to work on your own car, some of them actually make your car
easier to service.

Some of the reasons for this increase in the number of
microprocessors are:

* The need for sophisticated engine controls to meet
emissions and fuel-economy standards
* Advanced diagnostics
* Simplification of the manufacture and design of cars
* Reduction of the amount of wiring in cars
* New safety features
* New comfort and convenience features

In this article, we'll take a look at how each of these
factors has influenced the design of your car.

Sophisticated Engine Controls

Before emissions laws were enacted, it was possible to build a
car engine without microprocessors. With the enactment of
increasingly stricter emissions laws, sophisticated control
schemes were needed to regulate the air/fuel mixture so that
the catalytic converter could remove a lot of the pollution
from the exhaust.

Controlling the engine is the most processor-intensive job on
your car, and the engine control unit (ECU) is the most
powerful computer on most cars. The ECU uses closed-loop
control, a control scheme that monitors outputs of a system
to control the inputs to a system, managing the emissions and
fuel economy of the engine (as well as a host of other
parameters). Gathering data from dozens of different sensors,
the ECU knows everything from the coolant temperature to the
amount of oxygen in the exhaust. With this data, it performs
millions of calculations each second, including looking up
values in tables, calculating the results of long equations
to decide on the best spark timing and determining how long
the fuel injector is open. The ECU does all of this to ensure
the lowest emissions and best mileage. See How Fuel Injection
Systems Work for a lot more detail on what the ECU does.

A modern ECU might contain a 32-bit, 40-MHz processor. This
may not sound fast compared to the 500- to 1,000-MHz
processor you probably have in your PC, but remember that the
processor in your car is running much more efficient code
than the one in your PC. The code in an average ECU takes up
less than 1 megabyte (MB) of memory. By comparison, you
probably have at least 2 gigabytes (GB) of programs on your
computer -- that's 2,000 times the amount in an ECU.

The Future of Space Exploration

2010-06-08T02:24:00.001-07:00

NASA wants the Orion CEV to be versatile for future space
exploration. They project that it will be able to transport
crews to the International Space Station by 2014, the moon by
2020. Mars will be the next goal.

The main objective of the CEV is a return to the moon. During
the design stage of the Apollo, there were two proposals to
put man on the moon:

* The Earth Orbit Rendezvous (EOR) - pieces of a large
moon rocket would be assembled in Earth orbit and launched to
the moon
* The Lunar Orbit Rendezvous (LOR) - two smaller
spacecraft (command/service module and lunar module) would
meet in lunar orbit

Scientists eventually agreed that the LOR approach would save
more weight and achieve President John F. Kennedy's goal of
landing a man on the moon within 10 years. The flight plan
for the CEV return to the moon incorporates elements of both
the EOR and the LOR.

The CEV lunar missions will establish a lunar base to explore
the moon and search for water at the moon's South Pole
(necessary for surviving on the moon and a potential source
of material to make rocket fuel). They will also allow
astronauts to test equipment and techniques for future
missions to Mars. Since the moon is only three days away, it
is safer and less expensive to launch missions to Mars from
there. A rescue mission would also be easier for a lunar
mission than a Mars mission. The CEV will serve as a model
for designing other deep space, manned spacecraft.

With the CEV, NASA hopes to return astronauts to the moon and
make real the dream of sending humans to explore Mars and the
rest of the solar system.

CEV Service Module, Boosters and CLV

2010-06-08T02:22:00.000-07:00

The CEV service module will also be cylindrical. It will
cover and protect the heat shield of the CEV capsule while in
flight and provide power, propulsion, and attitude control.
The service module will be jettisoned prior to re-entry.

Some features of the service module include:

* A single engine propulsion, which will use slightly
more efficient methane/oxygen fuel rather than the hypergolic
mixture of Apollo SM (hydrazine/nitrogen tetroxide).
Methane/oxygen fuel has a greater specific impulse than
hydrazine/nitrogen tetroxide, which means a longer burn time
for the same mass of propellant and greater velocities. In
the future, it may be possible to make methane fuel from
components on the moon and Mars to fuel this type of vehicle.

* A larger fuel capacity to make different lunar orbits
and landing sites possible.

* Solar panels to generate electricity to supplement the
energy from the fuel cells.

* Conduits containing liquid ammonia or water/glycol
mixtures to transfer heat to radiators so it can escape into
space. In outer space, the difference in temperature between
sunlight and shade is about 400 degrees Fahrenheit. This
uneven heating causes thermal stress on the metals in the
spacecraft's structure. To counter this effect, the Apollo
spacecraft rotated on its axis when going to the moon to
allow solar radiation to heat the spacecraft evenly (the
"barbecue roll maneuver"). The CEV will probably do the same.

* Attitude control with thrusters similar to the Apollo.

The Apollo required a massive launch vehicle (Saturn V) to
lift both crew and payload. The shuttle's main engines needed
to supply large amounts of thrust to the vehicle for the same
reasons. The CEV launch booster, will only lift the crew, not
heavy payloads. Because of this, the CEV booster can be
smaller than the Apollo and space shuttle boosters.

The first stage of the CEV booster will be a solid rocket
booster (SRB) named Ares I, which will be similar to the one
on the space shuttle. The second stage will consist of
a single space shuttle engine fueled by liquid hydrogen and
oxygen tanks. Neither stage will be recovered or re-used (the
shuttle SRBs were both recovered and re-used).

Manned space exploration requires placing both astronauts and
payloads into orbit. Past vehicles have combined humans and
payloads on the same rocket, but the CEV concept has
separated these functions. The CLV will lift heavy payloads,
like lunar landers, moon transfer stages and space station
components. If necessary, the CLV can also be configured to
launch humans.

The CLV will consist of two stages:

* The firs t stage will have five main engines fueled by
liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen (named Ares V)
* The second will have either a shuttle main engine or
an Apollo J-2 engine, also fueled by liquid hydrogen and
liquid oxygen.

How the Orion CEV Will Work

2010-06-08T02:21:00.000-07:00

Although the space shuttle is still a technical marvel, the
fleet is aging and has become increasingly expensive to
operate. Recent problems with foam insulation have exposed
crews to danger, rendered it unsafe to fly, and caused NASA
to ground the entire fleet. NASA needs a vehicle that is
capable of carrying crew and payloads to Earth orbit, the
moon and Mars. With future exploration in mind, NASA is
designing a new vehicle.

NASA's new spaceship, the Orion Crew Exploration Vehicle,
will actually consist of two ships:

* The Crew Exploration Vehicle (CEV) will transport four
to six astronauts.
* The Cargo Launch Vehicle (CLV) will lift heavy payloads
and astronauts when necessary.

The Orion will use proven technologies from the Apollo and
space shuttle programs. They will also be safer and more
versatile for long-term space exploration.

CEV Basics

NASA has selected Lockheed Martin to design and build the
Orion. Main systems (such as power, navigation, life support,
communications, and computers) will be more advanced versions
of those on the Apollo and the space shuttle.

The CEV will consist of three basic parts:

* A capsule to hold the crew.

* A service module to hold the main propulsion system,
power systems, and attitude controls. Attitude refers to how
the spacecraft is oriented in space (x, y, and z directions
or pitch, roll, yaw axes). Apollo used four units of four
thrusters mounted on the service module for this task, while
the shuttle uses reaction control thrusters located on the
nose and aft sections.

* A booster to lift the CEV into Earth orbit.

For lunar landing missions, there will be a special module.

The capsule will be cone-shaped like the Apollo command
module, because it is more aerodynamic than the shuttle.
Instead of re-entering the atmosphere of Earth orbit at 8
kilometers per second (like the shuttle), the CEV will
re-enter the atmosphere from the higher velocities of lunar
travel, at 11 kilometers per second.

Besides shape, the CEV crew capsule has several other things
in common with the Apollo, along with a few differences:

* The larger diameter (16.5 feet, or 5 meters, instead of
3.9 feet) will hold more crew and cargo.

* The CEV aft heat shield will be ablative, meaning that
it will boil away. Apollo used a single, multi-layered aft
heat shield made of aluminum and epoxy resin that ablated as
it absorbed the heat of re-entry. (It was designed to be used
only once, just like the rest of the command module.) The
shuttle uses ceramic thermal tiles, thermal blankets, and
reinforced carbon resins to absorb the heat. However, this
concept has proven to be more difficult to service than its
theoretical design. The CEV heat shield will be replaceable
up to 10 times and last the design life of the vehicle.

* Air bags on the CEV will enable both land recoveries
and sea recoveries. All of the Apollo's recoveries were ocean
splashdowns.

* The CEV's position atop the launch booster puts it out
of the way of falling debris like pieces of foam or ice.

* An escape tower -- a small rocket that lifts the
command module off the booster in the event of a launch
failure -- is one of the CEV's unique features. This
mechanism is safer than the shuttle's abort procedures.

Japanese Team Crosses Australia, Takes Solar Car Challenge

2010-06-08T02:20:00.000-07:00

After nearly four days, 1,860 miles, and lots of baking
Australian sun, a team from Japan's Tokai University edged
out 31 other competitors to bring home a solar victory in the
2009 Global Green Challenge

A team of solar-car scientists from Japan's Tokai University
turned the intense rays of central Australia into victory in
the 2009 Global Green Challenge. The team covered nearly
1,860 miles over four days in their solar-powered Tokai
Challenger to claim first place among the Challenge's
solar-vehicle field.

The win shut down a four-win streak by Dutch utility Nuon,
which as of this writing was still battling the University of
Michigan for second place. The Tokai Challenger, which is
equipped with six square meters of 1.8 kW compound solar
cells developed by Sharp for outer-space applications, placed
fourth in qualifying at an average speed of 50.87mph. During
the race, the team reportedly took the lead on day one, and
stayed there all the way to the finish line.

Thirty-two solar vehicles from 16 countries made the start of
the 2009 Global Green Challenge last Sunday. The bi-annual
Global Green Challenge has separate categories for hybrid,
electric, and other forms of alternative energy vehicles.
Tokai's victory is the first by a Japanese team since 1993
when the Honda Dream II took first.

Liquavista's E-Paper Plays Full-Color Movies

2010-06-08T02:19:00.000-07:00

E-readers such as Amazon's Kindle DX, Sony's Daily Edition,
and Barnes & Noble's multi-touch hybrid might want to start
trembling. A new e-paper from Liquivista promises to allow
video-playing and digital note-taking on a multi-touch, color
screen.

Liquivista's secret is an electrowetting display. The
electrowetting technology uses an oil and water layer along
with a hydrophobic surface, and applies light voltage to
change the "wetting" properties of the surface. This helps
create a light switch twice as efficient as LCDs.

The company licensed the electrowetting technology from
Philips, and hopes to roll out three products soon.

It retains the high contrast of e-ink, but it uses
significantly more power, a limitation that likely makes it
more suited for use in a phone with 24-hour battery life than
a Kindle you charge once a month.

How To Fix a Broken Collider: the LHC's Restart Checklist

2010-06-08T02:15:00.000-07:00

Before scientists can put the Large Hadron Collider back to
work this month solving the mysteries of particle physics,
the LHC’s engineers face critical repairs to the $5-billion
device. First up: Fix the 53 superconducting magnets trashed
in September 2008 when a power cable broke, causing the
magnets to warm above their –458˚F operating temperature and
lose conductivity, or “quench.” Then pipes for helium coolant
melted, further damaging the magnets. Here, the other key
upgrades and a few of the thousand chores still to go:

1. Drill eight-inch relief valves into half of the 1,232
dipole magnets that steer the proton beam around the track,
to allow for a controlled pressure release in case of another
leak.
2. Install a new quench-protection system, which is 1,000
times as sensitive as its predecessor and shuts off the
accelerator if it detects an abnormal voltage increase—
an indicator of a heat spike.
3. Search for and eliminate electrical faults between the
magnets—especially where the cables join—which could increase
electrical resistance, causing the cables to overheat and
melt.
4. Cool the entire 17-mile track back down to –458˚F with
liquid helium. (Engineers brought the sections up to room
temperature so they could work inside the tunnel.)
5. Ramp up the current in the magnets from a couple
hundred amps to 6,000 over a few weeks. During this time,
test the quench-protection system by intentionally
overheating the magnets.
6. Perform the final machine check, covering some 10,000
items, such as the systems that inject the proton beam into
the collider and extract it within 1/5,000 of a second if
a magnet fails.

Google's Turn-By-Turn Maps for Android 2.0 Kicks Pricey Nav Apps to the Curb

2010-06-08T02:13:00.000-07:00

Hot on the heels of the Android 2.0 mobile OS release,
Google's sweetening the deal: the Eclair-flavored refresh to
their mapping app turns handsets into feature-rich GPS
devices -- for free.

Sure, previous versions of mobile Maps provided turn-by-turn
directions, but this beta release takes it a step further and
gets chatty. Like a standalone GPS, it will read directions
aloud to you, and you can enter destinations by voice. Also,
if you miss a turn, it will automatically recalculate your
route.

Maps for 2.0 also takes advantage of all Google's views,
including satellite images, Street View, and live traffic
overlays. And, since all the maps are cloud-based, you don't
have to download map updates or points of interest, since
they're all stored on Google itself. Plus, searching (by
either voice or text entry) is just like searching on the
Google Maps homepage; you don't need to know the exact name
of what you're looking for, so you can say things like
"navigate to the bar across the street from Yankee Stadium."

There's tons to play with in the Beta, so we'll get back to
you with plenty more, hands-on details when we get our mitts
on an Android 2.0 phone, which should be very soon.

Verizon Droid by Motorola

2010-06-08T02:10:00.000-07:00

We've talked about Android 2.0 and (virtually) walked through
the new Google Maps. Now, it's for real, and it's here.
Motorola's Droid has landed at PopSci HQ, and it's making
good on its promises.

Though it's touted as the thinnest landscape slider cell
phone (a little more than a half-inch), don't be fooled into
thinking the Droid is light; at nearly 6 ounces it outweighs
most BlackBerries and the iPhone -- but at least it feels
sturdy. Its 3.7-inch display is responsive and beautifully
high-res (480-by-854 pixels), and there's nice haptic
feedback when you press, well, anything (I'm already finding
myself defaulting to the virtual keyboard in landscape mode
over sliding out the physical QWERTY).

So...this whole Android 2.0 thing: it's got some nifty tricks
up its sleeve. The universal search pings everything on the
handset and the Web from anywhere you navigate; if, for
example, I'm listening to The Roots, I can search from their
artist page in the media player and get hit back with
everything local, plus extra goodies like YouTube videos
(which render quickly and smoothly, by the way). As for the
contacts integration, pulling all the myriad ways you have to
ping one person (text, Facebook, e-mail, or gasp phone call)
into one spot saves the trouble of clicking back and forth
between apps and windows.

Speaking of windows, if a new e-mail or text message pops up,
you don't have to abandon your current task (be it Web
browsing or YouTube watching); you can pull up the Droid's
Notification menu, see what's up, and hop back where you
started. The Web browser is similarly smart, keeping tabs on
multiple windows at a time and creating a thumbnail view of
your bookmarks.

And, as we said earlier today, Google Navigation Maps ain't
foolin' around. Though it couldn't do much to follow me
around the corridors at PopSci, I was able to track the route
to the beloved burgers of Shake Shack with turn-by-turn with
street view, satellite view, and a traffic layer on top. I
also to added a layer for gas stations along the route in two
clicks. Oh, and I entered the destination by voice.

The Motorola Droid will be available to Verizon customers on
Friday, November 6 for $200 with a two-year contract.

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vehicles to their own tastes.

2010-06-08T02:04:00.000-07:00

Steampunk Modifications

Perhaps the trickiest part of modifying any gadget is
changing it without breaking it or making it impossible to
use. Ideally, the artist will know how each gadget works
before beginning modifications. For most projects, the artist
doesn't try to change the performance or function of the
original device. Instead, he or she changes the gadget's
appearance to look like an invention from the 19th century.

Let's look at modifying a computer keyboard as an example. To
turn a modern computer keyboard into a steampunk creation,
artists take inspiration from the design of old typewriters
like the Underwood 5. Each artist has his or her own process,
but in general, a keyboard modification requires these steps.

First, the artist purchases old typewriter keys, making sure
the back of each key is smooth. If necessary, the artist saws
or sands down any excess metal on the back of the keys.

The artist removes the computer keyboard from its plastic
frame. Each and every key cap has got to go. The key cap
includes the key face (the part of the key you can see) and
an under-cap that snaps into the keyboard frame. Steampunk
artist Jake von Slatt recommends using an IBM Model M
keyboard because the under-caps are flat, which makes it
easier to attach the new key faces later.

Next, the artist removes the key face from each key cap,
making sure the top of the key cap is a flat surface. The
artist then snaps the key cap back into place on the
keyboard.

After taking measurements of the keyboard's components, the
artist designs the new steampunk frame. The keyboard's layout
won't change, but its appearance can undergo a drastic
transformation.

The new frame's design includes a faceplate. Most companies
design modern keyboards so that the keys are flush against
each other. Changing the style of the key faces means that
the user will see more of the keyboard's surface. A faceplate
masks the plastic parts and circuitry that otherwise would be
visible. The artist builds the frame and faceplate using
appropriate materials like copper, steel, wood or brass.

Once the faceplate is in place, the artist can glue the old
typewriter keys onto the appropriate key cap. Artists usually
must create customized key faces for certain keys that have
no typewriter analogue.

Last, the artist assembles the frame around the keyboard.
After many hours of meticulous work, he or she has created
a new steampunk keyboard, just like the Victorians never had.

Of course, keyboards are just one example of gadget
modification. Other devices might have more or fewer steps,
but the principle is the same: Change the object's outward
appearance so it looks like it could exist in a steampunk
universe. Artists have created steampunk computer monitors,
computer mice, electric guitars, mp3 players and watches.

Steampunk Original Creations

Not all steampunk art relies on modifying existing gadgets.
Some steampunk artists create completely original pieces.
While most of their work tends to be ornamental, a few
inventive gadgeteers have created functional -- if not
practical -- devices based on the steampunk style.

Jake von Slatt designed and built a telegraph sounder that
accepts data from RSS feeds, converts the information into
Morse code and taps out the messages. He first researched
telegraph sounders to find out what materials he would need
to build his own. After buying aluminum, brass and other
supplies, he used various power tools to cut and shape the
raw materials. Using some hitch pins, a few washers and some
electric wire, he fashioned the electromagnets needed to make
the telegraph sounder work. Once he had assembled the
telegraph sounder, he connected it to his computer keyboard
so that the sounder intercepted the signal sent to his
keyboard's LED lights. He used a program called Morse2LED to
translate text into Morse code. Normally, the LED lights on
his computer keyboard would blink out the encoded messages,
but since he had hooked up the telegraph sounder to intercept
those signals, it tapped out the messages instead.

Von Slatt's creation is a good example of steampunk. It
accomplishes a high-tech task -- transmitting information
from RSS feeds -- using antiquated technology. Is it
practical? Not unless you're fluent in Morse code. But many
people in the steampunk community praised von Slatt's
inventiveness.

Other creations have little or no practical purpose beyond
establishing a steampunk theme. Some are relatively simple,
like a pair of goggles made out of brass and leather. Antique
tools and furniture are also commonly used to create
a neo-Victorian atmosphere. Many steampunk fans are
do-it-yourselfers who tailor their costumes, houses or

Although most steampunk gear is custom-made, a few companies
offer mass-produced options. Weta Workshop in New Zealand is
famous for two things: designing and building props for films
like the "Lord of the Rings" series, and creating and selling
collectibles. Weta's collectibes include a line of limited
edition steampunk prop rayguns. Dubbed "Dr. Grordbort's
Infallible Aether Oscillators," the gun designs bring to mind
old science fiction pulp series like "Flash Gordon" or "Doc
Savage."

The art and design of steampunk has its origins in both the
history of engineering and in science fiction.

2010-06-08T02:02:00.000-07:00

Steampunk

2010-06-08T02:01:00.000-07:00

Flickering gas lamps puncture a thick London fog. A metallic,
rhythmic noise begins to drown out the normal sounds of the
evening. An army of copper clockwork automatons comes
marching out of the darkness. Overhead, a looming dirigible
barely clears the tallest buildings. Brass nozzles emerge
from the airship's gondola, blasting fire down upon the
rooftops. This is the world of steampunk.

The term "steampunk" originally referred to speculative
fiction -- science fiction, fantasy and fictional historical
tales -- set in an alternate Earth's 19th century. In this
universe, Victorian inventors made great leaps in
technological advancement with materials like iron and brass
and using steam engines for power. From a fictional
standpoint, real-life inventor Charles Babbage might have
succeeded in building his proposed Difference Engine,
an early computer. In reality, Babbage never saw his
computational engine realized.

Today, people use the term "steampunk" beyond its literary
meaning to refer to a style of art and design. There are
dozens of artists who modify or create objects to achieve
a steampunk aesthetic. Some of these projects have
a practical purpose, while others are pieces of artwork or
part of a costume. The designs merge the mundane with the
exotic, and many steampunk artists have enthusiastic fans who
will pay hundreds or thousands of dollars for one of their
creations.

What sort of people create steampunk gadgets and what tools
and materials do they use? What's a typical steampunk gadget
modification (mod) like? And just what do some of these
strange contraptions do? Keep reading to find out.

Steampunk Materials and Tools

The typical steampunk artist is also part inventor, part
engineer and part mad scientist. Many describe themselves as
gadgeteers or tinkerers. Steampunk art has a very industrial
appearance. Some feel that the use of materials like metal
and wood make objects appear more permanent than technology
made out of plastic and other modern materials.

Many steampunk artists are self-taught and work out of
basements or garages. Most treat their art as a hobby. The
amount of time and effort that goes into creating a single
piece of steampunk art makes it difficult to make a living
from selling art alone. Some are happy to share their design
and building processes, even including step-by-step
instructions so that others can create similar pieces.

Steampunk artists regularly use certain materials to achieve
an antiquated appearance. The most common materials in
steampunk art and design include:

* Metals like copper, brass, steel and iron
* Rivets
* Gears and cogs
* Wood
* Glass
* Antique light bulbs
* Leather

There aren't any stores that sell steampunk gadget kits, so
most artists have to do a lot of legwork to find materials
for their projects. Many scour arts and crafts shops,
pawnshops, thrift stores, flea markets and antiques shops for
parts. Some regularly search the Internet, particularly eBay,
for material.

As for tools, every artist has his or her own favorites. For
many artists, the most important tool is a drafting table or
similar design space. The most intricate pieces of steampunk
art require a lot of forethought in the design process. For
this reason, most steampunk artists own traditional drafting
tools like compasses, protractors, rulers, drafting triangles
and T-squares. By drafting meticulous designs, artists can
avoid problems when they're in the building phase of the
process.

Other common tools include:

* Band and table saws
* Sanders
* Drills
* Screwdrivers
* Hammers
* Pliers
* Wire cutters
* Soldering irons
* Metal files
* Vises
* Glues or epoxies

Some of these artists have created designs that turn mundane
devices into gadgets that look simultaneously atiquated and
high-tech. Pieces of steampunk art can be pretty expensive,
but there are ways to commission a less expensive piece. One
cost-cutting technique artists sometimes use is to spray
metallic paint on their creations to achieve the desired
look. A can of copper metallic finish might cost one-tenth
as much as a sheet of copper.

How do the battery testers on battery packages work? The little disposable battery testers that you see on batteries or battery packages are a grea

2010-06-08T01:58:00.000-07:00

How do the battery testers on battery packages work?

The little disposable battery testers that you see on
batteries or battery packages are a great example of combined
technologies -- several existing technologies have been
combined in a completely new way! Battery testers depend on
two special types of ink: thermochromic and conductive inks.
Thermochromic ink changes color depending on its temperature.
Conductive ink can conduct electricity. By applying layers of
these special inks along with a layer of normal ink using
a fairly normal printing press, it is possible to create an
extremely inexpensive printed design that changes depending
on the amount of electricity it receives.

There are two types of thermochromic ink: liquid crystal and
leucodye. Liquid crystal based thermochromic ink is sensitive
to very small changes in temperature, but it is fairly
difficult to manufacture. This makes it perfect for use in
items like thermometers where you need the sensitivity, but
troublesome in an item that needs to be inexpensive and in
which a large, abrupt change in temperature will occur.
Leucodyes are specially formulated substances that change
from a specific color, like blue, to a clear state when
subjected to a temperature change of about 5 degrees F or
more. Thermochromic inks can be formulated to change color at
specific temperatures. For battery testers, the desired
temperature is usually around 100-120 degrees F.

To create a battery tester, you start with a layer of
conductive ink that gets progressively narrower as you move
across the tester from "good" to "bad." In the picture above
the tester has 3 bars. In other testers the ink is
wedge-shaped. The narrowest point indicates the weakest
charge; the widest area indicates a full charge. When current
passes through the thin layer of conductive ink, resistance
in the ink creates heat. A small amount of current can
generate enough heat to affect the smallest area of
thermochromic ink; but, as the area widens, more current is
needed to change colors.

On top of the conductive ink is a layer of normal ink that
conveys the design. In most battery testers, this is some
type of "fuel gauge" graphic or text that indicates that
a battery is good. The design can be anything, since the
normal ink layer does not affect the way the conductive and
thermochromic layers interact.

Finally, there is the thermochromic layer. In the photo of
the battery tester above, the thermochromic layer is black
when cool. By touching a battery to the conductive ink on the
back of the paper, a connection between the positive and
negative terminals is created. As a current is generated, the
thermochromic ink will turn clear. This reveals the design
that is printed in normal ink. If there is enough current,
most or all of the thermochromic ink will heat to the
temperature needed to become translucent.

One question you might have right now is, "Doesn't the
battery tester drain some of the battery's energy?" The
answer is, "yes, but not enough to matter." If you tested the
battery every 5 minutes it might be a problem, but most
people don't do that.

One type of battery tester available now has the tester right
on the battery. You press two small dots indicated on the
battery to test it. These points complete a circuit between
the battery and the tester, and electricity flows through the
conductive ink in the same way as in the tester discussed
above.

2010-06-08T01:57:00.000-07:00

What happens to your discarded old computer?

2010-06-08T01:54:00.000-07:00

Remember how good it felt the last time you hauled your
clunky, old computer and monitor out to the curb and went
back inside to turn on your shiny, new PC? Well as it turns
out, that quick trip to the trash wasn't the best idea you
ever had.

A growing number of advocacy groups are working to educate
the public on what happens to their discarded, old computers
and why they may want to take more precautions when disposing
them. What many of us don't realize is that our electronics
and other household electrical gadgets are potential Molotov
cocktails, filled with unsavory heavy metals and toxic
chemicals.

Before we talk about the dangers, let's first examine how
ubiquitous these types of products have become in the U.S.
and around the world. Americans own billions of electronic
products, including 200 million computers.

With high technology turnover and obsolescence rates, in the
next five years, about a billion computers around the world
will be discarded [source: Ladou]. And how quickly are we
discarding computers in the U.S.? The Environmental
Protection Agency estimates 20 million computers were thrown
out in 1998. By 2005, that number had more than doubled, with
estimates at 130,000 computers being discarded daily. In
addition to computers, Americans toss out millions of cell
phones and TVs each year. On the other side of the pond,
Europeans discard about 6.5 million tons of household
electronic items each year.

The technical term for all this high-tech garbage is e-waste.
It refers to products like TVs and computers (including
keyboards, monitors, mouses, printers, scanners and other
accessories). E-waste also includes cell phones, DVD players,
video cameras and answering machines. The term refers to any
products that use electricity, like refrigerators, toasters,
lamps, toys, power drills, and pacemakers. For simplicity's
sake, this article will refer to all of these devices as
electronics. For a more in-depth look at e-waste and what it
involves, read How E-waste Works.

Dangers of Old Computers

So where do these electronic relics go to retire? Between
2003 and 2005, as much as 85 percent of the disposed
electronics in the U.S. went straight in the trash and headed
directly to local landfills or incinerators. Worldwide, as
much as 50 million tons of old electronics are discarded
annually.

Some of you may be thinking, "So what? All my other garbage
goes to the landfill, why not my old computer?" But let's
think back to what we touched on briefly on the previous page
-- the potentially lethal chemical combination that could
seriously harm the environment if not properly handled.

The dangers of discarded, old computers stem from what's
inside them. Your typical piece of electronic equipment --
especially one like a PC with many circuit boards -- may
contain up to 8 pounds (3.6 kilograms) of lead, along with
lower levels of mercury, arsenic, cadmium, beryllium and
other toxic chemicals. These elements are all toxic at
varying exposure levels. There is also a fairly poisonous
family of flame-retardant chemicals used in most electronics.
Find out how lead affects the body by reading Why do CRTs
contain lead?

Many of the aforementioned hazardous chemicals and toxic
substances are known to cause health problems -- and in some
cases death -- when exposure occurs in large doses. Less is
known about the dangers of exposure in small doses over
a long period of time, like elevated levels of toxic
chemicals in the water supply or inhalation of chemicals by
factory workers. It's safe to assume the effects aren't
good.

As you may imagine, landfills are a particularly harsh hotbed
for pollutants. In the U.S., e-waste accounts for
approximately 4 percent of the total amount of trash, but it
contributes about 40 percent of the lead content in
landfills. Of the other heavy metals in landfills, e-waste
accounts for about 70 percent of that pollution. While most
landfills are strategically located in an attempt to contain
potential soil and water contamination, having this much
hazardous waste on the ground may be cause for concern.

There is an even darker side as to what might await your
discarded, old PC. In the U.S., even if you made
a well-intentioned effort to properly recycle your computer,
there's a 50 to 80 percent chance that your computer didn't
end up where you thought it would. Continue
to the next page to learn more about your ex-computer's
potential world tour.

Recycling Old Computers

Recycling old computers can be accomplished when people
follow proper, valid channels. When the recycling trend is on
the upswing, the market inevitably starts to respond.
Manufacturers are taking back some old electronics from
customers and recycling or refurbishing them. In certain
instances, companies are improving their products so they
contain fewer toxins to begin with. Some companies are doing
this voluntarily; others are being forced by government
regulations. Legitimate e-waste recycling centers with
on-site facilities are also springing up in various cities.

But the sad reality is that for years -- and even to this
day -- many so-called recycling operations are simply
collection points. Collected electronic devices and parts are
sold to scrap brokers, who ship this cargo to developing
nations for deconstruction.

So why bother transporting e-waste? Why not recycle it right
where it is? Like many aspects of the global economy, the
cost of shipping e-waste is more than made up for by the
cheap labor available at its destination. Recycling
electronics in developing nations (including China, India,
Pakistan, Ghana, Nigeria and Ivory Coast) is achieved at
a fraction of what it would cost in developed countries. Part
of the savings also stems from the fact that occupational and
environmental laws tend to be weaker in those regions.

Once the e-waste arrives in these economically challenged
regions, laborers earn their incomes by recycling these old
computers, TVs and cell phones for their core components. And
the process is ugly.

In some communities, the young, the old and everyone in
between dismantle e-waste every day. Laborers smash and
unhinge devices, spraying toxic shrapnel all over the ground,
where people with no shoes walk. Then workers employ
a variety of methods to track down and remove the metals from
objects like circuit boards, semiconductors and wires.

Fire can burn away the flame-retardant cocoons that cradle
copper wiring, releasing soot and smoke into the air. Fire
also melts the metal off circuit boards and other electronic
organs. This allows workers to harvest gold, lead, copper and
other materials from the burned plastic husks.

Another method is an acid bath. Soaking the circuit boards in
powerful solutions of nitric and hydrochloric acids (highly
corrosive to human tissue in strong concentrations) can free
the metals from their etched electronic pathways. This
process is often done by hand. After that, the recovered
resources are sold and re-enter the manufacturing cycle.

The acid, hazardous waste and worthless byproducts are often
burned or find their way into local water sources, often by
outright dumping. Tests performed on the air and soil that
surrounds large recycling operations show a high level of
pollution. Researchers are studying how this e-waste
recycling affects the local populations. Preliminary reports
are expected to show negative results.

Now you have a better idea of the sad journey your computer
may have taken after it left the warmth and security of your
home office. Continue to the next page for great links about
how you can properly dispose of your next outdated, broken
computer.

Google Shows Off Android 2.0's

2010-06-08T01:49:00.000-07:00

The second version of Google's mobile OS (codenamed Eclair)
borrows ideas from existing (and upcoming?) phones for
an improved user experience

When we saw the Motorola Cliq and the way it married all your
contacts simply in one place (a la the Palm Pre), we finally
saw the light at the end of the Android tunnel. This morning,
that light got even brighter with Android 2.0--the next
iteration of Google's mobile software.

The big news is in contacts handling. Developers can now add
a widget called Quick Contact into their apps; QC pulls all
the ways you can reach someone into one pop-up menu that can
overlay any app in addition to Android's native address book.
Also on the address-book-sorting-front: the new API can pull,
save and sync contact information from any source a developer
chooses to code.

Apps can also now control the device Bluetooth, which allows
for more peer-to-peer play to share data or go head-to-head
in games.

Screens on Android devices, like the Archos 5, have been
outgrowing the original T-Mobile G1 for a few months now. 2.0
is finally catching up; one set if code will now render
correctly on screens with varying sizes and resolutions. On
their , Google's advising app-builders to make sure their
wares will render on screens as high-res as 800-by-480 pixels
(helpful comparison: the iPhone is 480-by-320).

And the camera also has some new tricks up its sleeve,
including digital zoom, flash support, scene modes, while
balancing, macro mode and color effects.

On the whole, Eclair has all the ingredients of a tasty
treat. Now we just have to keep an eye on the developers and
watch out as new hardware starts cropping up.

Coming Soon: Non-Latin Character URLs

2010-06-08T01:46:00.000-07:00

Since its inception, the World Wide Web has been dominated by
English. Even websites that use a different language still
use the Latin-character "www" format, with a URL spelled out
with the English alphabet. Well, that domination will soon
come to an end, as Icann, the committee that regulates the
Internet, has begun finalizing steps towards approving web
addresses in non-Latin characters.

Icann plans for the first of the URLs to go up by the middle
of next year, with many more to follow after that. According
to the committee, the shift is natural, as over half of
current Internet users speak a language that does not use the
Latin alphabet.

The plans for the switch first started in 2008, but Icann
officials said testing began much earlier. Currently, Icann
runs the Domain Name System program that converts URLs into
the numerical IP addresses that computers need to actually
speak with one another. Icann began designing software that
can translate Mandarin or Hindi text into IP addresses years
ago, and plan to deploy it within a year.

Right now, China and Thailand already provide services that
translate English alphabet URLs into the local language, but
those services remain unofficial and outside the jurisdiction
of Icann.

So that leaves me about about eight months to learn how to
spell "poker room" in Mandarin. Ni hao, suckers.

Google Voice Lite Lets You Keep Your Number

2010-06-08T01:43:00.000-07:00

Google Voice A new lite version of Google Voice lets users
take advantage of some of the service's best features without
changing their phone numbers.

So you want all the bells and whistles that come along with
Google Voice: call recording, call screening, text messages
via email, etc. However, after years of broadcasting your
familiar digits via business cards, email footers, and
crumpled cocktail napkins, you just can't bear to switch from
your old cell number to a new "Google number," the requisite
for taking advantage of the service. At least, it was
requisite; Google is now offering a lite version of Google
Voice that lets users retain their phone numbers while taking
advantage of some features of Google Voice.

Now, when you sign up for Google Voice, you will have the
option to choose a Google number or to keep your own old
number. Keeping your own number means you give up amenities
like in-call voice recording and call forwarding. However,
you get to keep the cream of Google Voice's offerings: Google
Voicemail. The voicemail option will transcribe voicemails
(to the best of its computer ability) just seconds after
recording them and either text or email them to you. From
there, it's easy to organize them on your PC or within your
phone. You can also still set up personalized voicemail
greetings for individual phone numbers.

Existing Google Voice users can also add Google Voicemail to
individual numbers they've linked to their accounts. For
those not in the Google Voice loop, it's invite-only, but you
can request one here.

Robotic Pathologist Performs Precise, Clean Autopsies on Humans

2010-06-08T01:40:00.000-07:00

Autopsies, for all the useful information they provide, have
significant downsides. They are often upsetting to the
deceased's family, they prevent people from receiving certain
kinds of religious burials, and they leave a bit of a mess.
To correct for those problems and more, a team at the
University of Bern, Switzerland, has developed a robot that
can perform virtual autopsies.

The robot uses stereo cameras to record a 3-D image of the
body's exterior, and a CT scanner to record the body's
internal condition. This results in a complete, 3-D,
computerized model of the entire body. Doctors can control
the robot to perform micro-biopsies for tissue examination,
doing away with any serious deformation of the body. The
medical examiner can then analyze the image, perform virtual
biopsies, and store the data for future use. The process
leaves no pile of used organs, and no jars filled with
alcohol and tissue.

In addition to making the whole process much easier, the
robot-conducted virtual autopsy also makes it easier for
medical examiners to compare the current corpse with previous
cases, and build a database for future reference.

Additionally, the robot used for the autopsy is much cheaper
than the robots usually used for surgery. Since there's no
chance of hurting someone who's already dead, the robot that
does the job can be a less precise, industrial model, the
type designed to assemble a car, not remove an appendix. For
similar reasons, surgical robots need a doctor monitoring
them at all times, but the robo-medical examiner can operate
autonomously.

Welcome to the future: if you're not killed by a robot, then
at the very least, a robot will figure out how you died.

Cardboard + Smartphone = Sweet DIY Augmented Reality Goggles

2010-06-08T01:38:00.000-07:00

Looking to get away to Paris this winter, but concerned about
the cost? Worry not; for the price of a pair of lab safety
goggles, a cardboard box and an HTC Magic (even better if the
HTC magic comes in a large cardboard box), this DIY augmented
reality headset can transport you anywhere in the world, just
as long as the Google Street View team has been there first.

The rudimentary setup takes advantage of the Magic’s compass
to enable the viewer to pan around in Street View simply by
turning his or her head. While our demonstrator, Recombu’s
Andrew Lim, takes his Google goggles for a staycation spin
around Paris in Street View, we’re more intrigued by the
possibilities of taking the Goggles out of the house, using
an AR app like Layar to layer information over the view from
the Magic’s camera. Or, as Gizmodo’s John Hermann points out,
you could swap to an iPhone 3GS and take Yelp’s new AR resto
hunting app for a spin.

Of course, searching for a lunch spot on Park Avenue with
a cardboard box tethered to your face might draw some
sideways glances from passers by. But while Lim’s DIY
virtual/augmented reality box resembles elementary science
fair fare, it’s an interesting look into what will likely be
the heads-up displays of the future: glasses that double as
displays for all kinds of information that augments the world
around us. Kind of like the vision Nokia released in a video
a couple of months ago, but without the lame Lilith Fair
soundtrack and egregious overuse of emoticons.

Fastest Supercomputer in the World Models Dark Matter, HIV Family Tree Simultaneously

2010-06-08T01:33:00.000-07:00

In November of last year, scientists at Los Alamos National
Laboratory switched on Roadrunner, the world's fastest
computer. IBM and the Department of Energy built the machine
to model nuclear explosions, but two new studies, both
released today, are proof that the computer's massive power
has been at least as devoted to peaceful science as to
simulating thermonuclear weapons.

In one experiment, the Roadrunner created the largest family
tree of HIV ever produced. The family tree incorporated over
10,000 HIV DNA sequences culled from over 400 infected
subjects. And in another use, Roadrunner simulated the Big
Bang in an attempt to figure out how dark matter came to
pervade the universe.

For the HIV study, Roadrunner donated its processing power to
allow scientists to compare the ecosystem of viruses across
a number of different patients. A single person can have as
many as 100,000 different versions of the the HIV virus in
their body at once, and learning how these mutants branch off
from the initial infecting agent could help develop
a vaccine. Until now, doctors didn't have the computing power
to analyze that many sequences at once. By looking at so many
different strains across so many different people, the
researchers hope to find common elements that a vaccine could
attack.

The dark matter story, on the other hand, fell more into
Roadrunner's wheelhouse, since the explosion of the Big Bang
isn't too dissimilar from the hydrogen bomb detonation
Roadrunner was originally tasked to perform. To create the
model of the early universe, Roadrunner calculated the
physics behind 64 billion proto-galaxies, each one about the
size of of a billion of our Sun. Once Roadrunner crunched
those giant numbers, the results predicted five-times more
dark matter than astronomers have observed to date.

All that, and I bet you could play a pretty awesome game of
Call of Duty, too. Although I guess that would defeat the
"swords to plowshares" vibe of using a computer designed to
model nuclear weapons for helping medicine and physics.

Implications of Thought-Controlled Games

2010-06-07T10:15:00.002-07:00

Emotiv hopes the excitement about its thought-controlled
gaming technology will live on forever in the Emortal,
an online portal for players. Here, people can walk through
a cityscape and find new applications and games to download.
They can also encounter community spaces and chat with other
players. People can even upload their own music and photos on
the Emortal.

If the EEG gaming technology eventually catches on, it could
revolutionize the way people think about video games in much
the same way the Nintendo Wii did (or perhaps more). On the
one hand, with its facial expression interpretations, the
Emotiv EPOC attempts to close the gap further between the
real world and the virtual world to create a more realistic
experience, much like the Wii does. On the other hand, the
Emotiv EPOC also tries to bridge the gap between human
thought and the outside world to create an experience that's
less like reality and more fantastical and dreamlike. The
technology behind EPOC eliminates the middleman of motion
altogether -- a staggering thought to consider.

It makes sense, then, that Emotiv and IBM have announced they
want to pursue the possibilities of this technology beyond
just the world of video games. One idea is that people would
be able to experience realistic virtual training with the
Emotiv technology. Time will tell if the EPOC and similar
technology will extend beyond the gaming market or even
permeate the gaming world at all.

But not everyone is as excited as IBM to see the world dive
into this kind of technology. Though there are certainly
plenty of gamers who are excited to usher in an age of
thought-controlled video games and interfaces, there are
others who find the whole idea, and even the experience of
playing it, "unnerving" [source: Reed]. Some question the
possible harmful applications of such devices. Should
researchers continue making more breakthroughs to advance EEG
technology, it could plausibly lead to computers that can, in
essence, read someone's mind. Those with the technology could
be privy to the private thoughts, opinions and emotions of
others. Granted, this could be very far off, considering
where the technology (and our understanding of the human
brain) is now. Nevertheless, we can't rule out the
possibility entirely. Perhaps we shouldn't dismiss the
prospect of Thought Police (like that in George Orwell's
"1984") as mere alarmism.

Regardless, if you're just interested in developing the Yoda
in you and lifting rocks with your mind, you can expect the
Emotiv EPOC to come out in 2009, for an expected cost of
about $299.

2010-06-07T10:15:00.001-07:00

EEG Gaming

As electroencephalogram (EEG) readings get more sophisticated
and our understanding of the brain advances, scientists can
delve further into the meaning of the scratchy graph. If the
test can convey more than just the evidence of a medical
abnormality and actually interpret a patient's thoughts, it
can have wider implications. If you remember, the presence of
beta waves indicates that a mind might be particularly
excited or stressed. It turns out that people emit certain
patterns of brain waves in conjunction with particular
emotions or even thoughts.

Researchers have been working to develop EEG technology
specifically for people living with loss of muscle control.
The idea is that, when the technology is perfected, patients
with paralysis will be able to control things through
a computer using only their thoughts. They would be able to
type e-mails or adjust the thermostat with mere concentration
[source: Singer]. Another application can offer a person
suffering from paralysis a virtual reality and an avatar
through which he or she can move vicariously.

Emotiv Systems, the company behind the new EPOC, has applied
this technology to the gaming world so everyone can
experience it. The company claims it has developed the first
high-fidelity brain computer interface (BCI) that reads and
interprets both conscious and nonconscious thoughts as well
as emotions [source: Emotiv]. The headset also processes
facial expressions. According to Emotiv, the range of the
system spans 30 different expressions, emotions and actions.
The emotion of boredom, the facial expression of smiling and
the thought of pulling are just a few examples of things the
system picks up on and translates to your avatar's actions on
the screen.

The EPOC headset incorporates 14 extensions of electrodes
(seven pairs), mostly centered around the front of the scalp.
But rather than using the wires of traditional EEG tests, the
headset is completely wireless, allowing the player free,
natural movement. To go along with that, the headset also
includes a gyroscope that allows the player's head motions to
control the camera or curser. In a doctor's office, it might
take a sticky gel to keep the electrodes in place, but the
EPOC headset fits on your head similar to the way headphones
do. The system costs significantly less, too -- instead of
the tens or hundreds of thousands of dollars that EEG
machines usually cost, the EPOC costs only a few hundred.

Playing the Emotiv EPOC

Whenever you're frustrated, your mind emits a particular
pattern of brain waves. And while the pattern might stay
consistent, it's probably a little different from the pattern
another person emits whenever he or she gets frustrated.
Because all brains are unique, the Emotiv EPOC has to get to
know your brain before you can get your Luke Skywalker on.

First, as you're putting on the headset, you need to finagle
the electrodes to make appropriate contact with your head.
Because it doesn't use the adhesive material of medical
electroencephalogram (EEG) machines and the headset is meant
to fit all sizes, you need to arrange the electrodes manually
until they're just right. Refrain from making jerky movements
to avoid disconnecting an electrode. Bundled along with the
Emotiv EPOC headset is a game in which you're challenged to
perform tasks for a sensei. In this game, you're told to
practice concentrating on a specific motion, such as lifting.
The headset's electrodes record the resulting brain waves
during your concentration, and from then on, the system
recognizes that pattern as the lift function. Concentration
is key, which can be challenging. Creators of the system
recommend that you physically pantomime the motions so that
you stay focused on the task at hand and are able to repeat
it later in the game.

A few of the actions the game asks you to practice and
perform are:

* Lifting an object
* Dropping an object
* Pushing an object
* Making an object vanish
* Rotating an object on six axes

Other aspects of the EEG readings don't have to be quite so
unique to you to work. For instance, the system can pick up
on general boredom even if it hasn't asked the player to
practice boredom before. The system recognizes that if you're
emitting more theta waves than usual, you're basically zoning
out. The system can respond by ramping up the excitement in
the game.

Some emotions it reads are:

* Excitement
* Tension
* Boredom
* Immersion
* Meditation
* Frustration

Aside from actions and emotions, remember that the headset
can also read facial expressions. As you wink or frown,
a corresponding cartoonish face on the screen mimics the
action. This can be incorporated into the game as well. In
demonstrations of the game, players are shown scaring away
fanciful creatures by grimacing.

Here are some of the actions Emotiv says the headset can
read:

* Winking
* Laughing
* Crossing eyes
* Appearing shocked
* Smiling
* Getting Angry
* Smirking
* Grimacing

What does the future look like for this technology? While
some consider the EPOC just fun, games and Jedi mind tricks,
others see this technology as having far-reaching
implications -- some good, some bad.

The Emotiv EPOC

2010-06-07T10:13:00.002-07:00

Video game developers constantly strive to make their games
more realistic, both in terms of visuals and (perhaps most
importantly) game-player interaction. Players want to be
able to do more in their virtual worlds. While in the past
this has led to more complicated joystick controllers that
look like they'd take a week to master, the tide is turning.
Developers are responding to the desire for a more intuitive
interface to match the lifelike alternate reality. The
Nintendo Wii, for instance, revolutionized the gaming
industry with simple-looking joysticks that interpret
movement. But now, the Emotiv EPOC is taking the next radical
step.

Far from the complicated controllers of other systems, the
controller the Emotiv EPOC uses is one you've been familiar
with all your life. No, we're not referring to your beloved
Atari Pong paddles -- we're talking about your brain. The
EPOC uses a headset that actually picks up on your brain
waves. These brain waves can tell the system what you want to
do in your virtual reality. In other words, you think "lift,"
and a virtual rock actually levitates on the screen.

For every Star Wars fan who's ever fantasized about having
the Force of Jedi Knighthood, this is a sort of dream come
true. Now, mere thoughts can translate into actions (albeit
virtual actions). This might sound too space-age and
incredible to be true, but the basic technology behind the
Emotiv EPOC is decades old.

But before we delve into how the EPOC itself works, we'll
take a look at your brain. First, we'll peer into the brain
to see exactly what brain waves are and how machines are
able to read and interpret them accurately. Then, we'll see
how Emotiv has adapted the technology for the gaming world.
And finally, we'll talk about the implications and
applications of thought-controlled technology.

EEG Technology and EPOC

If you've read How Your Brain Works or have ever taken
a psychology class, you probably know that your brain is home
to billions of neurons, which are nerve cells. Using
electrical impulses, they send messages to and through each
other. Whenever your brain is working (and that means always,
even during sleep), all these messages firing from neuron to
neuron amount to an electrical current.

Although the brain continues to be an enigmatic subject of
study, scientists have known about brain waves, which are
a map of the electrical current firing from neuron to neuron,
for a while. British physician Richard Caton first noticed
the brain's current in 1875. By 1924, German neurologist Hans
Berger found a way to read the current by developing what's
known as an electroencephalograph. This kind of machine
produces a graph measurement of brain waves, known as
an electroencephalogram (EEG).

The system involves hooking up several pairs of electrodes on
a patient's head. These electrodes are disks that conduct
electrical activity, capture it from the brain and convey it
out through a wire to a machine that amplifies the signal.
Scientists attach electrodes in pairs on the head because
they're measuring the difference in voltage between the pair.
Soon after starting his research, Berger noticed that the
electrical activity of brain waves correlated to a person's
state of mind.

As we mentioned, your brain fires out this electrical current
even when you're sleeping. Your brain waves are usually
slowest during sleep. However, slow is relative. In deep
sleep, the brain transmits delta waves, which fire one to
four times per second. In light sleep, theta waves fire about
four to seven times per second. Alpha waves, which we emit
when we're in a relaxed, conscious state, come next at about
seven to 13 pulses per second. Lastly, beta waves, which
reflect a very excited or stressed mind, fire fastest at 13
to 40 times per second. Your brain doesn't emit just one kind
of wave at one time; rather, it emits multiple kinds of waves
simultaneously. Nevertheless, one kind of wave can dominate
in a given moment.

Today, doctors are able to use EEG tests for a variety of
applications, such as diagnosing epilepsy as well as other
seizure disorders. The test is appropriate for diagnosing
epilepsy because the everyday brain wave patterns of patients
with epilepsy tend to be abnormal. EEG tests can also reveal
sleep disorders, tumors and the effects of a head injury or
determine whether a coma patient has become brain dead.

How do developers get such realistic environments in video games?

2010-06-07T10:13:00.001-07:00

Video game artists begin developing the 3-D models that will
make up the game world using a software application such as
3D Studio Max. Richly detailed texture maps are created for
each object.

Many 3-D games use a first-person or an over-the-shoulder
perspective. You, as the game player, either see the world
from the character's point of view or seem to be hovering in
the air slightly behind the character you are controlling.
As your character moves around, you see the world of the game
stretch out into the distance. But what you are really seeing
is a very clever illusion reminiscent of the backlots of
Hollywood!

The world that the game character can actually interact with
is a very defined area. If you could pull the camera view up
in the air, you would see that the play area is completely
self-contained. Other parts of the world that you can see in
the distance are actually two-dimensional images mapped onto
a flat surface that surrounds the play area like a barrel.
The sky is created in the same way, by mapping the sky image
onto a large dome or cylinder that fits over everything else.

How do the characters in video games move so fluidly?

2010-06-07T10:11:00.000-07:00

The characters in a game have skeletons. Similar to our own
skeleton, this is a hidden series of objects that connect
with and move in relation to each other. Using a technique
called parenting, a target object (the child) is assigned to
another object (the parent). Every time the parent object
moves, the child object will follow according to the
attributes assigned to it. A complete hierarchy can be
created with objects that have children and parents. Here's
an example for a human character

Once the skeleton is created and all of the parenting
controls put in place, the character is animated. Probably
the most popular method of character animation relies on
inverse kinematics. This technique moves the child object to
where the animator wants it, causing the parent object and
all other attached objects to follow. Another method that is
popular for games is motion capture, which uses a suit of
sensors on a real person to transmit a series of coordinates
to a computer system. The coordinates are mapped to the
skeleton of a game character and translated into fluid,
realistic motion.

Each character's range of motion is programmed into the game.
Here's a typical sequence of events:

* You press a button on the controller to make the
character move forward.
* The button completes a circuit, and the controller
sends the resulting data to the console.
* The controller chip in the console processes the data
and forwards it to the game application logic.
* The game logic determines what the appropriate action
at that point in the game is (move the character forward).
* The game logic analyzes all factors involved in making
the movement (shadows, collision models, change of viewing
angle).
* The game logic sends the new coordinates for the
character's skeleton, and all other changes, to the rendering
engine.
* The rendering engine renders the scene with new
polygons for each affected object, redrawing the scene about
60 times each second.
* You see the character move forward.

Fed Up With Tabletop Puddles, Scientists Engineer a High-Tech Dripless Teapot

2010-06-07T10:09:00.000-07:00

We've all experienced the fluid-dynamics phenomenon known as
the "teapot effect." Every time you pour out a nice relaxing
cup of tea, a little of the elixir dribbles down the outside
of the spout of the teapot, dampening your doily and your
spirits.

It happens because liquid clings to the lip of the spout
instead of exiting neatly, especially at low rates of flow.

Cyril Duez and his team of fluid dynamicists could not
tolerate one more dribble. They have identified the root
cause, a "hydro-capillary effect" that makes the tea fail to
leave the spout material gracefully. Two techniques can be
used to combat this.

One is to simply use a spout made of thinner material, which
gives the wayward beverage less purchase. Metal teapots, for
instance, like we see at Chinese restaurants, tend to drip
less than pudgy-walled ceramic ones.

The other, cooler approach is to coat the spout with one of
a class of super-hydrophobic materials, which repel any
attempt by the tea to cling to the spout instead of going
where it's supposed to. Some of these materials can be
activated and deactivated electrically, raising the exciting
possibility, as Technology Review points out, of a hilarious
gag teapot with a drip/no-drip switch. It would go nicely
with your Fraunhofer Perfect Mug.

The puzzling part is that the team of exacting tea scientists
are not British, but French.

First Acoustic Hyperlens Boosts Power of Ultrasound and Sonar

2010-06-07T10:05:00.000-07:00

Imaging an unborn fetus and and spotting a lurking submarine
could both become much easier with the world's first acoustic
hyperlens. The device manipulates imaging sound waves to
provide an eightfold increase in the magnification power of
technologies such as ultrasound and sonar.

Hyperlenses use specially engineered materials that combine
metals and dielectrics, and allow scientists to image
features much smaller than typical light wavelengths.
Researchers at the U.S. Department of Energy's Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory applied this approach to capture
information in evanescent sound waves, which have higher
resolution and more detail but dissipate much more quickly
than typical waves.

The acoustic hyperlens consists of 36 brass fins arrayed in
a pattern resembling a hand-held fan. The fins remain
embedded in a brass plate from which they were shaped, and
extend from an inner radius of just 2.7 centimeters to
an outer radius of 21.8 centimeters.

"As a result of the large ratio between the inner and outer
radii, our acoustic hyperlens compresses a significant
portion of evanescent waves into the band of propagating
waves so that the image obtained is magnified by a factor of
eight," said Lee Fok, one of the researchers in the Berkeley
Lab.

The same lab group, led by materials scientist Xiang Zhang,
demonstrated a similar feat in 2007 by breaking the
"diffraction limit" that usually prevents researchers from
imaging features smaller than typical light waves.

Zhang's group is now upgrading their approach to produce 3-D
images, and wants to make the technique compatible with the
pulse-echo technology found in medical ultrasounds and
underwater sonar.

Augmented Reality Goggles Make Marine Mechanics More Efficient

2010-06-07T09:57:00.000-07:00

New augmented reality goggles are helping Marine mechanics
perform maintenance on vehicles in about half the usual time.
The futuristic headgear displays precise instructions on top
of real-world settings, and shows how to complete certain
tasks, such as wiring up an ignition coil.

Similar augmented reality (AR) devices have already helped
astronauts carry out repairs on the International Space
Station, and could aid civilians tinkering with their BMWs in
the home garage. But the new goggles developed by Columbia
University researchers provide solid proof of how the devices
can improve human performance.

A test with six Marine mechanics found that they performed up
to 46 percent faster on making repairs to a light armored
vehicle when using the AR goggles, according to Technology
Review. The jarheads typically rely upon technical manuals
displayed on laptops.

Besides the heads-up display, the AR system uses text
instructions, floating labels, arrows and even 3-D models of
tools needed for various tasks. An Android smartphone
provides the wrist interface for cueing up new instructions.

We're looking forward to seeing this and other AR devices
seep into both military and civilian life in ever greater
numbers. An MIT augmented reality device previously won one
of PopSci's Inventions Awards, showing the possibilities of
interfacing online information with the real world.

Boston Dynamics' Petman Is the Creepy Bipedal Evolution of Big Dog

2010-06-07T09:55:00.000-07:00

The latest innovation to come out of the Boston Dynamics labs
is the Petman--a two-legged, upright robot that simulates the
walking motion of human beings. And like its quadruped cousin
the BigDog, this thing is equally creepy/hilarious (check out
the shoes).

Used (at the moment) to test chemical warfare clothing for
the US Army, the Petman is able to move at 3.2 mph,
recreating the natural heel-toe stride that we employ in our
walking motion.

In addition to walking, the Petman can crawl and perform
various calisthenics, perspiring all the while from its
artificial sweat glands. Boston Dynamics has few other
details, except that it took 13 months to design and 17
months to build. But the video pretty much spooks--er--speaks
for itself, so you're better off throwing that on repeat.

LHC Reawakens, Sending Proton Beams Running at the Speed of Light

2010-06-07T09:53:00.000-07:00

Recovery: Repairwork in an above-ground warehouse on the
French-Swiss border Cern's damaged magnets underwent repairs
at a nearby above-ground site. This man is working on the end
of a dipole magnet, which contains six conductors, each of
which carried 8,000 amps but were capable of conducting up to
13,000. In superconducting magnets like this one, the
internal materials are kept at some of the lowest
temperatures imaginable, decreasing resistance and allowing
them to generate electricity with virtually no loss of heat.
Courtesy Cern

Over the weekend, Cern ran particle beams through the Large
Hadron Collider for the first time since it was shut down
last September. After a helium leak caused magnets to
overheat, operations at the LHC were suspended for cleanup
and repairs. After tests on October 23 and 25, scientists
hope to have the LHC running again in full by November.

The LHC ring -- which measures 17 miles all around -- is
divided into eight sectors, two of which were tested this
weekend. Scientists introduced proton and lead ion beams
clockwise and counterclockwise through the 2.2-mile-long
sectors. Cern reported that results showed "a perfect
functioning of the machine," in preparation for a fully
circulating beam next month.

Superconducting magnets in the LHC function at a temperature
of 2 Kelvin -- that's two degrees above absolute zero.
Maintaining this kind of cold requires the use of superfluid
helium, which in turn allows the electrical current to pass
through without encountering any resistance, Cern's Christine
Darve told PopSci.com. By sending the intense proton beams
through what she calls a "moon vacuum," scientists are able
to reap 100 times more energy than through a normal magnet.

By 2011, scientists hope to accelerate the proton beams up to
3.5 trillion electron volts, but this weekend they started
out with just 450 billion. Collisions of the beams as they
travel at near lightspeed may yield new particles, which
scientists hope will provide clues about the Big Bang and the
nature of the universe.

While this may be possible in the future, scientists are now
glad to see that the magnets, which are connected by six
conductors capable of transmitting up to 13,000 amps each,
are once again in working order.

Skype vs. Vonage

2010-06-07T09:48:00.000-07:00

In a way, the Internet is a paradox. Getting access to it in
your home almost always requires you to spend some money. But
once you have that access, you can use the Internet to save
money. You can shop around for lower prices on everything
from electronics to airline tickets. You can also send e-mail
messages, pictures, music and videos without paying for any
type of postage. With Voice over IP (VoIP) services, you can
make phone calls -- even long distance or international ones
-- for free.

Currently, there are several VoIP services on the market. The
two most well-known ones are Skype and Vonage. Although both
of these services use VoIP technology, they're quite
different from one another. In this article, we'll explore
how each of these services works, and we'll give you the
information you need to decide if one of them is right for
you.

Skype and Vonage are similar in that they're both VoIP
services. When you make a VoIP call, you use your computer's
built-in microphone and speakers, a headset, an IP phone or
a phone plugged into an analog telephone adapter in place of
an ordinary phone. This equipment and your computer translate
the analog signal of your voice into a digital signal. The
digital signal travels over the Internet. Once it reaches its
destination, the telephone or computer that answers the call
translates it back into analog sound.

Skype and Vonage are also similar in that they can be
significantly less expensive than traditional phone service.
This is especially true if you make a lot of long-distance
calls. Depending on how you use it, Skype can even be
completely free. But the two services have more differences
than similarities, starting with the steps you need to take
to open an account.

Opening a Skype Account

To start an account with Skype, all you have to do is go to
the Skype homepage and click "Download Now" to download
a free program. This program is the Skype soft phone client,
which includes an on-screen keypad you can use to make calls.

After you install the program, the Skype Getting Started
wizard shows you how to add contacts, make calls and import
contact information from your address book. If you haven't
already signed up for an account at the Skype Web page, you
can also follow a link from the program to create your
username and password.

The Skype application looks and works a lot like an instant
messaging(IM) client. As with an IM client, you can change
your online status, look at your contact list and decide who
you want to talk to. In order to use these functions and to
make calls, your computer has to be on and connected to the
Internet, and your Skype application has to be running.

Calls to other Skype users are free, as are outbound calls to
traditional numbers until the end of 2006. As of January
1, 2007, using Skype to call land lines and cell phones will
cost $29.95 per year (Skype-to-Skype calls will still be
free). To receive incoming calls from traditional phones, you
must purchase Skype Credit and use the add-on SkypeIn
service.

This process is significantly different from what you need to
do to get started with Vonage. While opening a Skype account
is a lot like starting an IM account, opening a Vonage
account is more like getting set up with a new ISP. You sign
up for the service at the Vonage Web page. But rather than
downloading a program, you fill out forms online to
establish your account. Unlike Skype,
the service is not provided for free.

Signing up with Vonage is a multi-step process involving:

* Selecting a service plan (prices start at around $14.99
a month)
* Choosing whether to keep your existing phone number or
get a new one
* Choosing the equipment that will allow you to use the
service
* Entering your name, address and phone number for 911
calling purposes

Physics of Total Internal Reflection

2010-06-07T09:46:00.001-07:00

When light passes from a medium with one index of refraction
(m1) to another medium with a lower index of refraction (m2),
it bends or refracts away from an imaginary line
perpendicular to the surface (normal line). As the angle of
the beam through m1 becomes greater with respect to the
normal line, the refracted light through m2 bends further
away from the line.

At one particular angle (critical angle), the refracted light
will not go into m2, but instead will travel along the
surface between the two media (sine [critical angle] = n2/n1
where n1 and n2 are the indices of refraction [n1 is greater
than n2]). If the beam through m1 is greater than the
critical angle, then the refracted beam will be reflected
entirely back into m1 (total internal reflection), even
though m2 may be transparent!

In physics, the critical angle is described with respect to
the normal line. In fiber optics, the critical angle is
described with respect to the parallel axis running down the
middle of the fiber. Therefore, the fiber-optic critical
angle = (90 degrees - physics critical angle).

In an optical fiber, the light travels through the core
(m1, high index of refraction) by constantly reflecting from
the cladding (m2, lower index of refraction) because the
angle of the light is always greater than the critical angle.
Light reflects from the cladding no matter what angle the
fiber itself gets bent at, even if it's a full circle!

Because the cladding does not absorb any light from the core,
the light wave can travel great distances. However, some of
the light signal degrades within the fiber, mostly due to
impurities in the glass. The extent that the signal degrades
depends upon the purity of the glass and the wavelength of
the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60 to 75
percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is
greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show
much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at
1,550 nm.

Advantages of Fiber Optics

2010-06-07T09:44:00.001-07:00

Why are fiber-optic systems revolutionizing
telecommunications? Compared to conventional metal wire
(copper wire), optical fibers are:

* Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be
made cheaper than equivalent lengths of copper wire. This
saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and you money.

* Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller
diameters than copper wire.

* Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are
thinner than copper wires, more fibers can be bundled into
a given-diameter cable than copper wires. This allows more
phone lines to go over the same cable or more channels to
come through the cable into your cable TV box.

* Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical
fiber is less than in copper wire.

* Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper
wires, light signals from one fiber do not interfere with
those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer
phone conversations or TV reception.

* Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade
less, lower-power transmitters can be used instead of the
high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper wires.
Again, this saves your provider and you money.

* Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for
carrying digital information, which is especially useful in
computer networks.

* Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed
through optical fibers, there is no fire hazard.

* Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than
a comparable copper wire cable. Fiber-optic cables take up
less space in the ground.

* Flexible - Because fiber optics are so flexible and can
transmit and receive light, they are used in many flexible
digital cameras for the following purposes:
o Medical imaging - in bronchoscopes, endoscopes,
laparoscopes
o Mechanical imaging - inspecting mechanical welds
in pipes and engines (in airplanes, rockets, space shuttles,
cars)
o Plumbing - to inspect sewer lines

Because of these advantages, you see fiber optics in many
industries, most notably telecommunications and computer
networks. For example, if you telephone Europe from the
United States (or vice versa) and the signal is bounced off
a communications satellite, you often hear an echo on the
line. But with transatlantic fiber-optic cables, you have
a direct connection with no echoes.

A Fiber-Optic Relay SystemA Fiber-Optic Relay System

2010-06-07T09:43:00.001-07:00

To understand how optical fibers are used in communications
systems, let's look at an example from a World War II movie
or documentary where two naval ships in a fleet need to
communicate with each other while maintaining radio silence
or on stormy seas. One ship pulls up alongside the other. The
captain of one ship sends a message to a sailor on deck. The
sailor translates the message into Morse code (dots
and dashes) and uses a signal light (floodlight with
a venetian blind type shutter on it) to send the message to
the other ship. A sailor on the deck of the other ship sees
the Morse code message, decodes it into English and sends the
message up to the captain.

Now, imagine doing this when the ships are on either side of
the ocean separated by thousands of miles and you have
a fiber-optic communication system in place between the two
ships. Fiber-optic relay systems consist of the following:

* Transmitter - Produces and encodes the light signals
* Optical fiber - Conducts the light signals over
a distance
* Optical regenerator - May be necessary to boost the
light signal (for long distances)
* Optical receiver - Receives and decodes the light
signals

Transmitter
The transmitter is like the sailor on the deck of the sending
ship. It receives and directs the optical device to turn the
light "on" and "off" in the correct sequence, thereby
generating a light signal.

The transmitter is physically close to the optical fiber and
may even have a lens to focus the light into the fiber.
Lasers have more power than LEDs, but vary more with changes
in temperature and are more expensive. The most common
wavelengths of light signals are 850 nm, 1,300 nm, and 1,550
nm (infrared, non-visible portions of the spectrum).

Optical Regenerator
As mentioned above, some signal loss occurs when the light is
transmitted through the fiber, especially over long distances
(more than a half mile, or about 1 km) such as with undersea
cables. Therefore, one or more optical regenerators is
spliced along the cable to boost the degraded light signals.

An optical regenerator consists of optical fibers with
a special coating (doping). The doped portion is "pumped"
with a laser. When the degraded signal comes into the doped
coating, the energy from the laser allows the doped molecules
to become lasers themselves. The doped molecules then emit
a new, stronger light signal with the same characteristics as
the incoming weak light signal. Basically, the regenerator is
a laser amplifier for the incoming signal.

Optical Receiver
The optical receiver is like the sailor on the deck of the
receiving ship. It takes the incoming digital light signals,
decodes them and sends the electrical signal to the other
user's computer, TV or telephone (receiving ship's captain).
The receiver uses a photocell or photodiode to detect the
light.

Fiber Optics

2010-06-07T09:40:00.000-07:00

You hear about fiber-optic cables whenever people talk about
the telephone system, the cable TV system or the Internet.
Fiber-optic lines are strands of optically pure glass as thin
as a human hair that carry digital information over long
distances. They are also used in medical imaging and
mechanical engineering inspection.

What are Fiber Optics?

Fiber optics (optical fibers) are long, thin strands of very
pure glass about the diameter of a human hair. They are
arranged in bundles called optical cables and used to
transmit light signals over long distances.

If you look closely at a single optical fiber, you will see
that it has the following parts:

* Core - Thin glass center of the fiber where the light
travels
* Cladding - Outer optical material surrounding the core
that reflects the light back into the core
* Buffer coating - Plastic coating that protects the
fiber from damage and moisture

Hundreds or thousands of these optical fibers are arranged in
bundles in optical cables. The bundles are protected by the
cable's outer covering, called a jacket.

Optical fibers come in two types:

* Single-mode fibers
* Multi-mode fibers

See Tpub.com: Mode Theory for a good explanation.

Single-mode fibers have small cores (about 3.5 x 10-4 inches
or 9 microns in diameter) and transmit infrared laser light
(wavelength = 1,300 to 1,550 nanometers). Multi-mode fibers
have larger cores (about 2.5 x 10-3 inches or 62.5 microns in
diameter) and transmit infrared light (wavelength = 850 to
1,300 nm) from light-emitting diodes (LEDs).

Some optical fibers can be made from plastic. These fibers
have a large core (0.04 inches or 1 mm diameter) and transmit
visible red light (wavelength = 650 nm) from LEDs.

How Does an Optical Fiber Transmit Light?

Suppose you want to shine a flashlight beam down a long,
straight hallway. Just point the beam straight down the
hallway -- light travels in straight lines, so it is no
problem. What if the hallway has a bend in it? You could
place a mirror at the bend to reflect the light beam around
the corner. What if the hallway is very winding with multiple
bends? You might line the walls with mirrors and angle the
beam so that it bounces from side-to-side all along the
hallway. This is exactly what happens in an optical fiber.

The light in a fiber-optic cable travels through the core
(hallway) by constantly bouncing from the cladding
(mirror-lined walls), a principle called total internal
reflection. Because the cladding does not absorb any light
from the core, the light wave can travel great distances.

However, some of the light signal degrades within the fiber,
mostly due to impurities in the glass. The extent that the
signal degrades depends on the purity of the glass and the
wavelength of the transmitted light (for example, 850 nm = 60
to 75 percent/km; 1,300 nm = 50 to 60 percent/km; 1,550 nm is
greater than 50 percent/km). Some premium optical fibers show
much less signal degradation -- less than 10 percent/km at
1,550 nm.

Why am I not allowed to use my cell phone in airplanes or hospitals?

2010-06-07T09:39:00.000-07:00

Most of us experience electromagnetic interference on
a fairly regular basis. For example:

* If I put my cell phone down on my desk near the
computer, I can hear loud static in my computer's speakers
every time the phone and the tower handshake. In the same
way, my car's tape player produces loud static whenever I
make a call on my cell phone.
* When I dial a number on my home's wireless phone, I can
hear the number being dialed through the baby monitor.
* It is not uncommon for a truck to go by and have its CB
radio overwhelm the FM station I am listening to.
* Most of us have come across motors that cause radio or
TV static.

None of these things, technically, should be happening. For
example, a truck's CB radio is not transmitting on the FM
radio bands, so my radio should never hear CB signals.
However, all transmitters have some tendency to transmit at
lower power on harmonic side bands, and this is how the FM
radio picks up the CB. The same thing holds true for the
wireless phone crossing over to the baby monitor. In the case
of the cell phone affecting the computer's speakers, the wire
to each speaker is acting like an antenna, and it picks up
side bands in the audible range.

These are not dire problems -- they are just a nuisance. But
notice how common they are. In an airplane, the same
phenomena can cause big trouble.

An airplane contains a number of radios for a variety of
tasks. There is a radio that the pilots use to talk to ground
control and air traffic control (ATC). There is another radio
that the plane uses to disclose its position to ATC
computers. There are radar units used for guidance and
weather detection, and so on. All of these radios are
transmitting and receiving information at specific
frequencies. If someone were to turn on a cell phone, the
cell phone would transmit with a great deal of power (up to
3 watts). If it happens to create interference that overlaps
with radio frequencies the plane is using, then messages
between people or computers may be garbled. If one of the
wires in the plane has damaged shielding, there is some
possibility of the wire picking up the phone's signals just
like my computer's speakers do. That could create faulty
messages between pieces of equipment within the plane.

Many hospitals have installed wireless networks for equipment
networking. For example, look at the picture of the heart
monitor in How Emergency Rooms Work. The black antenna
sticking out of the top of the monitor connects it back to
the nursing station via a wireless network. If you use your
cell phone and it creates interference, it can disrupt the
transmissions between different pieces of equipment. That is
true even if you simply have the cell phone turned on -- the
cell phone and tower handshake with each other every couple
of minutes, and your phone sends a burst of data during each
handshake.

The prohibition on laptops and CD players during takeoff and
landing is addressing the same issue, but the concerns here
might fall into the category of "better safe than sorry." A
poorly shielded laptop could transmit a fair amount of radio
energy at its operating frequency, and this could,
theoretically, create a problem.

How does a vibrating cell phone or pager work?

2010-06-07T09:37:00.000-07:00

If you have a cell phone or a pager, then you know that
having it ring in the middle of a movie or performance is
enoughto get you killed in some cities. Vibrating devices
that quietly replace the ringer are therefore life-saving
devices that are an important part of urban survival!

There is, however, a device that takes vibration to high-tech
extremes. Any parent whose child owns a Tickle-Me-Elmo doll
has experienced this technology. Elmo has a vibration system
(designed to simulate body-shaking laughter) that is powerful
enough to cause many children to drop the toy. The vibration
system inside a pager works exactly the same way on a smaller
scale, so let's use Elmo as an example.

Here is a Tickle-Me-Elmo doll:
Minor surgery reveals the control unit:
Inside the control unit (on the right hand side in the above
image) is a small DC motor which drives this gear:

You can see that, attached to the gear, there is a small
weight. This weight is about the size of a stack of 5 U.S.
nickels, and it is mounted off-center on the gear. When the
motor spins the gear/weight combination (at 100 to 150 RPM),
the off-center mounting causes a strong vibration. Inside
a cell phone or pager there is the same sort of mechanism in
a much smaller version.

Cell-phone Viruses- Part 2

2010-06-07T09:34:00.000-07:00

How They Spread

Phones that can only make and receive calls are not at risk.
Only smartphones with a Bluetooth connection and data
capabilities can receive a cell-phone virus. These viruses
spread primarily in three ways:

* Internet downloads - The virus spreads the same way
a traditional computer virus does. The user downloads
an infected file to the phone by way of a PC or the phone's
own Internet connection. This may include file-sharing
downloads, applications available from add-on sites (such as
ringtones or games) and false security patches posted on the
Symbian Web site.

* Bluetooth wireless connection - The virus spreads
between phones by way of their Bluetooth connection. The user
receives a virus via Bluetooth when the phone is in
discoverable mode, meaning it can be seen by other
Bluetooth-enabled phones. In this case, the virus spreads
like an airborne illness.
Cell-phone-virus researchers at F-Secure's U.S. lab now
conduct their studies in a bomb shelter so their research
topics don't end up spreading to every Bluetooth-enabled
phone in the vicinity.

* Multimedia Messaging Service - The virus is
an attachment to an MMS text message. As with computer
viruses that arrive as e-mail attachments, the user must
choose to open the attachment and then install it in order
for the virus to infect the phone. Typically, a virus that
spreads via MMS gets into the phone's contact list and sends
itself to every phone number stored there.

In all of these transfer methods, the user has to agree at
least once (and usually twice) to run the infected file. But
cell-phone-virus writers get you to open and install their
product the same way computer-virus writers do: The virus is
typically disguised as a game, security patch or other
desirable application.

The Commwarrior virus arrived on the scene in January 2005
and is the first cell-phone virus to effectively spread
through an entire company via Bluetooth
(Phone virus spreads through Scandinavian company). It
replicates by way of both Bluetooth and MMS. Once you receive
and install the virus, it immediately starts looking for
other Bluetooth phones in the vicinity to infect. At the same
time, the virus sends infected MMS messages to every phone
number in your address list. Commwarrior is probably one of
the more effective viruses to date because it uses two
methods to replicate itself.

So what does a virus like this do once it infects your
phone?

The Damage Done

The first known cell-phone virus, Cabir, is entirely
innocuous. All it does is sit in the phone and try to spread
itself. Other cell-phone viruses, however, are not as
harmless.

A virus might access and/or delete all of the contact
information and calendar entries in your phone. It might send
an infected MMS message to every number in your phone book
-- and MMS messages typically cost money to send, so you're
actually paying to send a virus to all of your friends,
family members and business associates. On the
worst-case-scenario end, it might delete or lock up certain
phone applications or crash your phone completely so it's
useless.

Cell-phone viruses have gotten a lot more harmful since the
Cabir worm landed in the hands of researchers in 2004. But on
the bright side, there are some steps you can take to protect
your phone.

Protecting Your Phone

The best way to protect yourself from cell-phone viruses is
the same way you protect yourself from computer viruses:
Never open anything if you don't know what it is, haven't
requested it or have any suspicions whatsoever that it's not
what it claims to be. That said, even the most cautious
person can still end up with an infected phone. Here are some
steps you can take to decrease your chances of installing
a virus:

* Turn off Bluetooth discoverable mode. Set your phone
to "hidden" so other phones can't detect it and send it the
virus. You can do this on the Bluetooth options screen.

* Check security updates to learn about filenames you
should keep an eye out for. It's not fool-proof -- the
Commwarrior program generates random names for the infected
files it sends out, so users can't be warned not to open
specific filenames -- but many viruses can be easily
identified by the filenames they carry. Security sites with
detailed virus information include:
o F-Secure
o McAfee
o Symantec

Some of these sites will send you e-mail updates with
new virus information as it gets posted.

* Install some type of security software on your phone.
Numerous companies are developing security software for cell
phones, some for free download, some for user purchase and
some intended for cell-phone service providers. The software
may simply detect and then remove the virus once it's
received and installed, or it may protect your phone from
getting certain viruses in the first place. Symbian has
developed an anti-virus version of its operating system that
only allows the phone's Bluetooth connection to accept secure
files.

Although some in the cell-phone industry think the potential
problem is overstated, most experts agree that cell-phone
viruses are on the brink of their destructive power.
Installing a "security patch" that ends up turning your phone
into a useless piece of plastic is definitely something to be
concerned about, but it could still get worse. Future
possibilities include viruses that bug phones -- so someone
can see every number you call and listen to your
conversations -- and viruses that steal financial
information, which would be a serious issue if smartphones
end up being used as payment devices (Paying by cell phone on
the way). Ultimately, more connectivity means more exposure
to viruses and faster spreading of infection. As smartphones
become more common and more complex, so will the viruses that
target them.

Cell-phone Viruses- Part 1

2010-06-07T09:33:00.000-07:00

The first known cell-phone virus appeared in 2004 and didn't
get very far. Cabir.A infected only a small number of
Bluetooth-enabled phones and carried out no malicious action
-- a group of malware developers created Cabir to prove it
could be done. Their next step was to send it to anti-virus
researchers, who began the process of developing a solution
to a problem that promises to get a lot worse.

Cell-phone viruses are at the threshold of their
effectiveness. At present, they can't spread very far and
they don't do much damage, but the future might see
cell-phone bugs that are as debilitating as computer viruses.
In this article, we'll talk about how cell-phone viruses
spread, what they can do and how you can protect your phone
from current and future threats.

Cell-phone Virus Basics

A cell-phone virus is basically the same thing as a computer
virus -- an unwanted executable file that "infects" a device
and then copies itself to other devices. But whereas
a computer virus or worm spreads through e-mail attachments
and Internet downloads, a cell-phone virus or worm spreads
via Internet downloads, MMS (multimedia messaging service)
attachments and Bluetooth transfers. The most common type of
cell-phone infection right now occurs when a cell phone
downloads an infected file from a PC or the Internet, but
phone-to-phone viruses are on the rise.

Current phone-to-phone viruses almost exclusively infect
phones running the Symbian operating system. The large number
of proprietary operating systems in the cell-phone world is
one of the obstacles to mass infection. Cell-phone-virus
writers have no Windows-level marketshare to target, so any
virus will only affect a small percentage of phones.

Infected files usually show up disguised as applications like
games, security patches, add-on functionalities and, of
course, pornography and free stuff. Infected text messages
sometimes steal the subject line from a message you've
received from a friend, which of course increases the
likelihood of your opening it -- but opening the message
isn't enough to get infected. You have to choose to open the
message attachment and agree to install the program, which is
another obstacle to mass infection: To date, no reported
phone-to-phone virus auto-installs. The installation
obstacles and the methods of spreading limit the amount of
damage the current generation of cell-phone virus can do.

Benefits and Drawbacks of Going Tankless

2010-06-07T09:30:00.000-07:00

If you're considering making the switch to a tankless water
heater, you should carefully weigh the pros and cons first.

Benefits:

* Most tankless units come with a federal tax rebate of
$300.
* They never run out of hot water.
* They last five to 10 years longer than tank heaters.
* They're more efficient with no standby heat loss.
* They take up less space and can even be installed on
walls or outdoors with an anti-freeze kit.
* Smaller units can be installed under cabinets or in
a closet, closer to the point of use.
* They only need enough power to heat the amount of water
necessary at any given moment.
* You can shave as much as 20 percent from your water
heating bill.
* Electric models don't produce greenhouse gases.
* Most units are operated by remote control and have up
to four separate settings available.
* There's no possibility of flooding due to a ruptured
tank.

Drawbacks:

* They cost up to three times as much as a tank water
heater.
* Your hot water output is split among all your household
fixtures.
* You may need to add a larger natural gas line to supply
the unit with enough fuel.
* Venting gas and propane units requires expensive
stainless steel tubing.
* Electric models may require an additional circuit.
* Gas-powered units produce greenhouse gases.
* Gas units require the additional expense of an annual
servicing.
* Electric models require a lot of energy.
* They need a minimum flow rate of .5 GPM in order to
activate the heat exchanger.
* Lag time can require you to run your water in order to
get to the hot water, increasing water waste.

Other Considerations:

* Water heating accounts for about 20 percent of your
home energy budget.
* A whole-house electric model costs $500-$700.
* A whole-house gas model costs $1,000-$2,000.
* Electric models are generally cheaper to install than
gas.
* Natural gas is less expensive now, but expected to
surpass electricity in the coming years.
* A standard bathtub holds about 35 gallons, soaking tubs
hold between 45-80 gallons.

If it's time to get a new water heater and you want to know
if switching to a tankless unit will save you money in the
long run, compare the yellow "Energy Guide" stickers on your
current heater and the tankless model that best suits your
needs. This sticker will give you a good idea of what you can
expect. Then weigh in all the expense factors that come with
going tankless, including venting costs and gas line or
electricity upgrades. Once you know the total costs involved,
compare this to the cost of a new tank model and then figure
out your energy costs for each. The amount of time it will
take to make back your money with your monthly savings is
called the payback period. You should also consider that
a storage tank heater will need to be replaced again in about
ten years -- you'll get roughly 15-20 years of use from your
tankless model.

Tankless Water Heater Specifics

2010-06-07T09:28:00.000-07:00

Deciding what kind of tankless heater to go with depends on
a couple of things:

* The flow rate, or amount of water you'll need heated at
one time
* Temperature rise, or the difference between your
groundwater temperature and the desired output temperature

The Federal Energy Policy Act of 1992 set flow limits at 2.2
gallons per minute (GPM) at 60 pounds per square inch (PSI)
for household water fixtures. Some people also use aerators
to further limit the flow of water. Tankless manufacturers
size their units based on the temperature rise needed for
a given flow rate.

To calculate your flow rate, add up the GPM for the household
water fixtures you'll need at one time:

* Bathroom faucet - low-flow faucets use 0.5-1.5 GPM.
Standard post-1992 fixtures are set at 2.2 GPM. Faucets
before 1992 fall between 3.0 and 5.0 GPM.

* Kitchen faucet - pre-1992 fixtures use between 3.0-7.0
GPM. The post-1992 standard remains 2.2 GPM, and kitchen
faucets don't use aerators, so there are no low-flow numbers.

* Shower - low flow rate is between 1.0-2.0 GPM. The 1992
standard remains 2.2 GPM. Pre-1992 heads fall between
4.0-8.0 GPM.

Now figure out your temperature rise by calculating the
difference between the temperature of your groundwater and
what you'd like the end result to be. For instance, if you
have a groundwater temperature of 70 degrees and you like
your showers to be a pleasant 110 degrees, that's a rise of
40 degrees. Your ground water temperature is roughly the same
as your average yearly air temperature.

Once you have your temperature rise and know your flow rates,
then you know what size and what kind of heater will work
best for your needs. It's important to remember in this
calculation that you'll be measuring the amount of hot water
you'll need at one time. Tankless systems never run out of
hot water, but if you want to turn on every fixture in your
house at the same time, the hot water will be split among
them. So estimate the number of fixtures you think you'd need
at one time -- chances are it won't be every fixture.

Let's say you live in an older home that has been partially
remodeled. You estimate that you'll need to heat water for
your kitchen faucet, one bathroom faucet and two shower heads
at one time. One of the shower heads is newer and meets the
1992 standard, while the other is older and has a flow rate
of roughly 5.0. The rest of your fixtures also meet the 2.2
standard. Add 2.2 + 2.2 + 2.2 and 5.0 for a total flow rate
of 11.6. You live in Miami, so your groundwater temperature
is roughly 72 degrees and you like your showers at 100
degrees. This means you should look for a tankless system
that can heat 11.6 GPM at a rise of 28 degrees.

Gas- and propane-powered heaters typically provide more juice
than electric models and are generally used for whole-house
systems. Electric models are more common in point-of-use
scenarios, although sometimes people prefer to use two
electric heaters in parallel instead of one larger
gas-powered unit. If you want a shower in your pool house or
hot water for an outdoor kitchen, you might be a good
candidate for a small electric tankless heater.

How Tankless Water Heaters Work

2010-06-07T09:27:00.000-07:00

It's the holiday season and your peaceful suburban domicile
is overflowing with houseguests. You need a nice, hot shower
to soothe your nerves, but you're in line behind your in-laws
and cousins. In times like these, you'll be glad you
installed that new tankless water heater in your garage.

The idea behind a tankless system is that it heats the water
as you need it instead of continually heating water stored in
a tank. Tankless heaters have been the norm in much of Europe
and Japan for quite some time, but they haven't gained
popularity until recently in the United States -- largely due
to the green movement. If you're a good candidate for
a tankless system, you can save a substantial amount of money
every year on your monthly bills while at the same time
conserving natural gas. Tankless heaters also last about five
to 10 years longer than a tank heater, take up much less
space and provide you with an unlimited amount of hot water.
On the downside, a tankless system can cost up to three times
as much as a tank heater and often requires costly upgrades
to your natural gas line and an expensive venting system.

So is it cost-effective to switch from your traditional tank
heating system? Or should you just wait until your current
water heater bites the dust to make the switch? This depends
on many different factors. In this article, we'll break down
these factors to help you weigh your decision on whether or
not to go tankless. We'll also explain in simple terms how it
works so you know what you're getting into.

Tankless Systems

In order to understand how a tankless water heater works,
it's important to know how a standard tank heater operates.
In a traditional heater system, there's a large tank that
holds and heats water. In order to give you hot water when
you need it, the tank continually heats the water to maintain
a constant temperature. The energy used to keep the water hot
even when it's not being used is called standby heat loss.

Tankless systems avoid standby loss by heating incoming water
only as you need it -- they're also referred to as "on
demand" water heaters for this reason. The elimination of the
standby heat loss is what makes a tankless system more
efficient, but we'll get to that in more detail a little
later.

In order to get you that piping-hot shower when you want it,
a tankless water heater uses a powerful heat exchanger to
raise the temperature. A heat exchanger is a device that
transfers heat from one source to another. There are heat
exchangers in your air conditioner, refrigerator and car
radiator. In this case, it transfers heat generated by
electric coils or a gas-fired burner to the water that comes
out of your faucet. This exchanger is activated by the
incoming flow of water. So when you turn on your hot water
tap, the incoming water circulates through the activated
exchanger, which heats the cold water to your preset
temperature. All you need then is some soap and shampoo and
you're ready to wash, rinse and repeat.

Tankless systems come in two varieties -- point-of-use
heaters and whole-house heaters. Point-of-use systems are
small and only heat water for one or two outlets -- say, your
kitchen sink. Because of their size, they can fit under
a cabinet or in a closet. They're beneficial because they can
be installed closer to your outlet and avoid water loss due
to lag time. Lag time is the amount of time it takes for the
hot water to reach your faucet. In large houses, the lag time
can be significant, sometimes as long as several minutes.
This means that while your water heating bill may be going
down, your water consumption will be going up, which is
something you should consider when debating whether or not to
go tankless. Whole-house systems are larger, more expensive
and can operate more than one outlet at a time.

With tankless water heaters, you can choose from electric,
propane or natural gas models. Point-of-use models are
generally electric, while whole-house systems are usually
powered by either natural gas or propane. Which model to go
with and what heating source you should use depends on many
different factors. We'll take a closer look at those factors
in the next section so you can make an educated decision when
it comes time to purchase your tankless heater.

Sizing a Storage Tank Water Heater

2010-06-07T09:26:00.001-07:00

Once you've decided on your fuel type, you need to figure out
what size water heater will give you enough of what you need.
If you're replacing your heater, give some thought as to
whether or not your previous model consistently provided
enough heat. If it didn't, then you're going to want to
upgrade to a larger size. Also give some consideration to
whether or not your family has any potential to grow over the
next decade. If you have plans to start a family or if your
mother-in-law is going to be moving in with you, you'll want
a larger heater as well. After you've taken all that into
consideration, you can appropriately size your new heater.

For storage tank heaters, there are two important factors in
sizing: the amount of water it holds and the recovery rate,
which is the amount of water it can heat in one hour. The
recovery rate is displayed as First Hour Rating (FHR) on the
Energy Guide sticker. Generally speaking, if you live in
a two-person household, you can get away with a 30 to 40
gallon heater. Three to four people require a 40 to 50 gallon
tank, and if you have five or more in your house, go with
a 50 to 80 gallon model. Gas heaters have a greater FHR than
electric units, so they have smaller tanks with the same EF
rating.

To get a more specific idea of your needs, estimate your peak
hour demand and find a heater that falls within a couple of
gallons of this number. Here are estimates for the number of
gallons used for each household task:

* Shower - 20
* Bath - 20
* Shaving - 2
* Shampoo - 4
* Hand and face wash - 4
* Dish wash by hand - 4
* Dishwasher - 14
* Food preparation - 5
* Washing machine - 32

Multiply these numbers by the amount of times they occur in
a peak hour to get your total gallons used. For instance, if
you have three people in your household that all take morning
showers, you'd multiply 20 gallons by three to get 60 total
gallons used. If you also run the dishwasher in that same
hour after your shower, add another 14 gallons to give you
a grand total of 34 gallons. This is your peak hour need and
what you should look for on the Energy Guide sticker. If you
have limited headroom where your heater should go, look for
"low-boy" models -- they're shorter and bigger around, but
have the same capacity as their taller cousins.

Should you go tankless?

2010-06-07T09:24:00.000-07:00

Tankless water heaters are catching on in the United States
as an alternative to storage tank models. Instead of
constantly heating water in a stored tank, tankless units
only heat water as you need it. Turning on your hot water
triggers an electric or gas-powered heat exchanger that
quickly heats the water to your preset temperature. There are
point-of-use models that only operate one or two fixtures, or
whole-house units that take care of all your water heating
needs. Point-of-use models are small and can be mounted under
a cabinet or in a closet. Whole-house units are also wall
mounted, saving valuable floor space.

There are many benefits to going with a tankless heater. Most
units come with a federal tax rebate of $300 and are more
efficient than storage tank models -- you can shave as much
as 20 percent from your water heating bill [source: Energy
Star]. Since tankless heaters heat water as it flows, you'll
never run out of hot water. Tankless heaters also last five
to ten years longer than a storage tank model. Electric
models don't produce greenhouse gases, and there's no
possibility of flooding due to a ruptured tank.

There are also drawbacks to tankless heaters. Natural gas
whole-house units can cost up to three times as much as
conventional heaters. Although you'll have an unlimited
supply of hot water, there are limits on volume because the
output is split between all of your fixtures. Some houses
require a larger natural gas line to supply the unit with
enough fuel, adding to the price. Further expense comes from
venting the gas or propane with pricey stainless steel tubing.
If you go with an electric unit, it may require an additional
power circuit. Gas powered models produce greenhouse gases
and require annual servicing. The time that it takes to get
the hot water from the heater to your faucet can increase
water waste.

A large whole house electric model costs $500 to $700, about
the same as a similar storage tank unit. Gas models have
a much larger price difference. A whole house gas tankless
heater can cost as much as $2,000. The storage tank
counterpart runs about $450. Installation of tankless heaters
is almost always more expensive as well.

To decide which type of heater to go with, add up the total
price of purchase and installation for the heaters that fit
your needs. Then compare that to the efficiency rating you'll
find on the yellow Energy Star sticker on the heater. The
amount of time it takes to recoup the additional expense of
a tankless heater is called the payback period. You should
also consider that a storage tank heater will need to be
replaced again in about 10 years -- you'll get roughly 15-20
years of use from your tankless model.

How to Choose a New Water Heater

2010-06-07T09:22:00.001-07:00

It's the dead of winter, freezing cold outside, and you seek
comfort in the piping hot confines of your morning shower.
With the lights dimmed, the water hits your face and rolls
over your shoulders. Your muscles relax one by one as the
warmness of the water finds its way down your legs to your
chilly, restless feet. Lathered with soap and shampoo, you
slump against the warming tile, eyes closed. You consider
falling back asleep standing fully upright when it happens --
a sudden burst of ice cold water hits your chest like acid
rain. You crank the cold water down to zero with no result.
The water temperature has turned against you, refusing heat
in a stubborn show of determination. The cruel reality hits
you -- your water heater has just bought the farm.

A visit to your local big-box home-improvement store is
overwhelming, to say the least. You're faced with too many
brands and too many sizes to choose from. Different fuel
sources and energy ratings confuse you. And what's the deal
with these heaters that don't even have a tank? How on earth
can they meet your needs? Unfortunately, your big-box
home-improvement employee helps you none -- you're going to
have to figure this one out on your own.

Water Heater Fuel Sources

Electric - uses large coils that hang down into the tank to
heat the water. The coils are similar to the ones in
an electric oven. Generally, electric water heaters aren't as
efficient as those powered by other fuel sources, and
electricity is more expensive than natural gas or propane.
However, they're less expensive up front and don't require
venting. If your water demand is small, then it may be a good
way to go.

Natural Gas - uses a gas burner at the bottom of the tank,
with a venting chimney that runs through the center and out
the top. The carbon dioxide and water vapor byproducts are
vented through the chimney and then run outdoors through your
house chimney or side wall vent. A gas pilot light or
electric spark produces the flame. Natural gas models cost
more than electric heaters but are more efficient to operate.

Propane - works in the same way as a natural gas, but uses
propane as the fuel source. Propane is generally used as
a fuel source when a home doesn't have access to natural gas.
The propane is supplied from a large tank on the property.

Oil - similar to gas and propane models, but mixes the oil
with air using a power burner to create a vapor mist, which
is then ignited by an electric spark. Like propane, oil heat
is typically used when natural gas isn't available and is
also delivered to the location and stored in a large tank.

Solar - uses the heat from the sun to produce hot water. The
heat is harvested by an "absorber" panel that typically sits
on your rooftop. Tubes inside the panel either directly heat
the water flowing through them or a transfer fluid that warms
a heat exchanger. This exchanger heats your home's water in
a storage tank. Solar systems can be used in conjunction with
a conventional system, much like a hybrid car uses both
gasoline and electricity, to cut up to 80 percent of your
water heating bill.

Heat Pump - takes heat from the air and delivers it to the
water via electricity. They're two to three times more
efficient than electric water heaters, but consumer demand
is low and there are few manufacturers. They cost more up
front than conventional units and can only be used in areas
where the temperature stays between 40 and 90 degrees
Fahrenheit (4.4 to 32.2 degrees Celsius) year-round.

As you can see, your decision largely depends on where you
live. If you have access to natural gas, it can be a very
fuel efficient way to go. If you live in outlying areas where
it isn't available, then your home is already set up with
either oil or propane. Solar heaters are best used in areas
where there's abundant sunshine, so if you live in Seattle,
then it's probably not the best idea. Heat pumps can shave
a great deal of money from your bill but are fairly uncommon,
and this scares off many consumers. If you want a cost
effective system that's easy to maintain and service, then
a natural gas water heater is probably your best bet.

After a Crash

2010-06-07T09:21:00.001-07:00

Although they are called "black boxes," aviation recorders
are actually painted bright orange. This distinct color,
along with the strips of reflective tape attached to the
recorders' exteriors, help investigators locate the black
boxes following an accident. These are especially helpful
when a plane lands in the water. There are two possible
origins of the term "black box": Some believe it is because
early recorders were painted black, while others think it
refers to the charring that occurs in post-accident fires.

Underwater Locator Beacon
In addition to the paint and reflective tape, black boxes are
equipped with an underwater locator beacon (ULB). If you look
at the picture of a black box, you will almost always see
a small, cylindrical object attached to one end of the device.
While it doubles as a handle for carrying the black box, this
cylinder is actually a beacon.

If a plane crashes into the water, this beacon sends out
an ultrasonic pulse that cannot be heard by human ears but is
readily detectable by sonar and acoustical locating equipment.
There is a submergence sensor on the side of the beacon that
looks like a bull's-eye. When water touches this sensor, it
activates the beacon.

The beacon sends out pulses at 37.5 kilohertz (kHz) and can
transmit sound as deep as 14,000 feet (4,267 m). Once the
beacon begins "pinging," it pings once per second for 30
days. This beacon is powered by a battery that has a shelf
life of six years. In rare instances, the beacon may get
snapped off during a high-impact collision.

In the United States, when investigators locate a black box
it is transported to the computer labs at the National
Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). Special care is taken in
transporting these devices in order to avoid any (further)
damage to the recording medium. In cases of water accidents,
recorders are placed in a cooler of water to keep them from
drying out.

"What they are trying to do is preserve the state of the
recorder until they have it in a location where it can all be
properly handled," Doran said. "By keeping the recorder in
a bucket of water, usually it's a cooler, what they are doing
is just keeping it in the same environment from which it was
retrieved until it gets to a place where it can be adequately
disassembled."

Retrieving Information
After finding the black boxes, investigators take the
recorders to a lab where they can download the data from the
recorders and attempt to recreate the events of the accident.
This process can take weeks or months to complete. In the
United States, black-box manufacturers supply the NTSB with
the readout systems and software needed to do a full analysis
of the recorders' stored data.

If the FDR is not damaged, investigators can simply play it
back on the recorder by connecting it to a readout system.
With solid-state recorders, investigators can extract stored
data in a matter of minutes. Very often, recorders retrieved
from wreckage are dented or burned. In these cases, the
memory boards are removed, cleaned up and a new memory
interface cable is installed. Then the memory board is
connected to a working recorder. This recorder has special
software to facilitate the retrieval of data without the
possibility of overwriting any of it.

A team of experts is usually brought in to interpret the
recordings stored on a CVR. This group typically includes
a representative from the airline, a representative from the
airplane manufacturer, an NTSB transportation-safety
specialist and an NTSB air-safety investigator. This group
may also include a language specialist from the Federal
Bureau of Investigation and, if needed, an interpreter. This
board attempts to interpret 30 minutes of words and sounds
recorded by the CVR. This can be a painstaking process and
may take weeks to complete.

Both the FDR and CVR are invaluable tools for any aircraft
investigation. These are often the lone survivors of airplane
accidents, and as such provide important clues to the cause
that would be impossible to obtain any other way. As
technology evolves, black boxes will continue to play
a tremendous role in accident investigations.

Flight Data Recorders

2010-06-07T09:20:00.001-07:00

The flight data recorder (FDR) is designed to record the
operating data from the plane's systems. There are sensors
that are wired from various areas on the plane to the
flight-data acquisition unit, which is wired to the FDR. When
a switch is turned on or off, that operation is recorded by
the FDR.

In the United States, the Federal Aviation Administration
(FAA) requires that commercial airlines record a minimum of
11 to 29 parameters, depending on the size of the aircraft.
Magnetic-tape recorders have the potential to record up to
100 parameters. Solid-state FDRs can record more than 700
parameters. On July 17, 1997, the FAA issued a Code of
Federal Regulations that requires the recording of at least
88 parameters on aircraft manufactured after August 19, 2002.

Here are a few of the parameters recorded by most FDRs:

* Time
* Pressure altitude
* Airspeed
* Vertical acceleration
* Magnetic heading
* Control-column position
* Rudder-pedal position
* Control-wheel position
* Horizontal stabilizer
* Fuel flow

Solid-state recorders can track more parameters than magnetic
tape because they allow for a faster data flow. Solid-state
FDRs can store up to 25 hours of flight data. Each additional
parameter that is recorded by the FDR gives investigators one
more clue about the cause of an accident.

Built to Survive

In many airline accidents, the only devices that survive are
the crash-survivable memory units (CSMUs) of the flight data
recorders and cockpit voice recorders. Typically, the rest of
the recorders' chassis and inner components are mangled. The
CSMU is a large cylinder that bolts onto the flat portion of
the recorder. This device is engineered to withstand extreme
heat, violent crashes and tons of pressure. In older
magnetic-tape recorders, the CSMU is inside a rectangular
box.

Using three layers of materials, the CSMU in a solid-state
black box insulates and protects the stack of memory boards
that store the digitized information. We will talk more about
the memory and electronics in the next section. Here's
a closer look at the materials that provide a barrier for the
memory boards, starting at the innermost barrier and working
our way outward:

* Aluminum housing - There is a thin layer of aluminum
around the stack of memory cards.
* High-temperature insulation - This dry-silica material
is 1 inch (2.54 cm) thick and provides high-temperature
thermal protection. This is what keeps the memory boards safe
during post-accident fires.
* Stainless-steel shell- The high-temperature insulation
material is contained within a stainless-steel cast shell
that is about 0.25 inches (0.64 cm) thick. Titanium can be
used to create this outer armor as well.

Testing a CSMU

To ensure the quality and survivability of black boxes,
manufacturers thoroughly test the CSMUs. Remember, only the
CSMU has to survive a crash -- if accident investigators have
that, they can retrieve the information they need. In order
to test the unit, engineers load data onto the memory boards
inside the CSMU. L-3 Communications uses a random pattern to
put data onto every memory board. This pattern is reviewed on
readout to determine if any of the data has been damaged by
crash impact, fires or pressure.

There are several tests that make up the crash-survival
sequence:

* Crash impact - Researchers shoot the CSMU down an air
cannon to create an impact of 3,400 Gs (1 G is the force of
Earth's gravity, which determines how much something weighs).
At 3,400 Gs, the CSMU hits an aluminum, honeycomb target at
a force equal to 3,400 times its weight. This impact force is
equal to or in excess of what a recorder might experience in
an actual crash.
* Pin drop - To test the unit's penetration resistance,
researchers drop a 500-pound (227-kg) weight with a 0.25-inch
steel pin protruding from the bottom onto the CSMU from
a height of 10 feet (3 m). This pin, with 500-pounds behind
it, impacts the CSMU cylinder's most vulnerable axis.
* Static crush - For five minutes, researchers apply
5,000 pounds per square-inch (psi) of crush force to each of
the unit's six major axis points.
* Fire test - Researchers place the unit into
a propane-source fireball, cooking it using three burners.
The unit sits inside the fire at 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit
(1,100 C) for one hour. The FAA requires that all solid-state
recorders be able to survive at least one hour at this
temperature.
* Deep-sea submersion - The CSMU is placed into
a pressurized tank of salt water for 24 hours.
* Salt-water submersion - The CSMU must survive in a salt
water tank for 30 days.
* Fluid immersion - Various CSMU components are placed
into a variety of aviation fluids, including jet fuel,
lubricants and fire-extinguisher chemicals.

During the fire test, the memory interface cable that
attaches the memory boards to the circuit board is burned
away. After the unit cools down, researchers take it apart
and pull the memory module out. They restack the memory
boards, install a new memory interface cable and attach the
unit to a readout system to verify that all of the preloaded
data is accounted for.

Black boxes are usually sold directly to and installed by the
airplane manufacturers. Both black boxes are installed in the
tail of the plane -- putting them in the back of the aircraft
increases their chances of survival. The precise location of
the recorders depends on the individual plane. Sometimes they
are located in the ceiling of the galley, in the aft cargo
hold or in the tail cone that covers the rear of the
aircraft.

"Typically, the tail of the aircraft is the last portion of
the aircraft to impact," Doran said. "The whole front portion
of the airplane provides a crush zone, which assists in the
deceleration of tail components, including the recorders, and
enhances the likelihood that the crash-protected memory of
the recorder will survive."

Solid-state Technology In Black Boxes

2010-06-07T09:18:00.000-07:00

Solid-state recorders are considered much more reliable than
their magnetic-tape counterparts, according to Ron Crotty,
a spokesperson for Honeywell, a black-box manufacturer. Solid
state uses stacked arrays of memory chips, so they don't have
moving parts. With no moving parts, there are fewer
maintenance issues and a decreased chance of something
breaking during a crash.

Data from both the CVR and FDR is stored on stacked memory
boards inside the crash-survivable memory unit (CSMU). In
recorders made by L-3 Communications, the CSMU is
a cylindrical compartment on the recorder. The stacked memory
boards are about 1.75 inches (4.45 cm) in diameter and 1 inch
(2.54 cm) tall.

The memory boards have enough digital storage space to
accommodate two hours of audio data for CVRs and 25 hours of
flight data for FDRs.

Airplanes are equipped with sensors that gather data. There
are sensors that detect acceleration, airspeed, altitude,
flap settings, outside temperature, cabin temperature and
pressure, engine performance and more. Magnetic-tape
recorders can track about 100 parameters, while solid-state
recorders can track more than 700 in larger aircraft.

All of the data collected by the airplane's sensors is sent
to the flight-data acquisition unit (FDAU) at the front of
the aircraft. This device often is found in the electronic
equipment bay under the cockpit. The flight-data acquisition
unit is the middle manager of the entire data-recording
process. It takes the information from the sensors and sends
it on to the black boxes.

Both black boxes are powered by one of two power generators
that draw their power from the plane's engines. One generator
is a 28-volt DC power source, and the other is a 115-volt,
400-hertz (Hz) AC power source. These are standard aircraft
power supplies, according to Frank Doran, director of
engineering for L-3 Communications Aviation Recorders.

Cockpit Voice Recorders

In almost every commercial aircraft, there are several
microphones built into the cockpit to track the conversations
of the flight crew. These microphones are also designed to
track any ambient noise in the cockpit, such as switches
being thrown or any knocks or thuds. There may be up to four
microphones in the plane's cockpit, each connected to the
cockpit voice recorder (CVR).

Any sounds in the cockpit are picked up by these microphones
and sent to the CVR, where the recordings are digitized and
stored. There is also another device in the cockpit, called
the associated control unit, that provides pre-amplification
for audio going to the CVR. Here are the positions of the
four microphones:

* Pilot's headset
* Co-pilot's headset
* Headset of a third crew member (if there is a third
crew member)
* Near the center of the cockpit, where it can pick up
audio alerts and other sounds

Most magnetic-tape CVRs store the last 30 minutes of sound.
They use a continuous loop of tape that completes a cycle
every 30 minutes. As new material is recorded, the oldest
material is replaced. CVRs that used solid-state storage can
record two hours of audio. Similar to the magnetic-tape
recorders, solid-state recorders also record over old
material.

Black Boxes

2010-06-07T09:16:00.000-07:00

On January 31, 2000, Alaska Airlines Flight 261 departed
Puerto Vallarta, Mexico, heading for Seattle, WA, with
a short stop scheduled in San Francisco, CA. Approximately
one hour and 45 minutes into the flight, a problem was
reported with the plane's stabilizer trim. After a 10-minute
battle to keep the plane airborne, it plunged into the
Pacific Ocean off the coast of California. All 88 people
onboard were killed.

With any airplane crash, there are many unanswered questions
as to what brought the plane down. Investigators turn to the
airplane's flight data recorder (FDR) and cockpit voice
recorder (CVR), also known as "black boxes," for answers. In
Flight 261, the FDR contained 48 parameters of flight data,
and the CVR recorded a little more than 30 minutes of
conversation and other audible cockpit noises.

Following any airplane accident in the United States, safety
investigators from the National Transportation Safety Board
(NTSB) immediately begin searching for the aircraft's black
boxes. These recording devices, which cost between $10,000
and $15,000 each, reveal details of the events immediately
preceding the accident. In this article, we will look at the
two types of black boxes, how they survive crashes, and how
they are retrieved and analyzed.

Recording and Storage

The Wright Brothers pioneered the use of a device to record
propeller rotations, according to documents provided by L-3
Communications. However, the widespread use of aviation
recorders didn't begin until the post-World War II era. Since
then, the recording medium of black boxes has evolved in
order to record much more information about an aircraft's
operation.

Although many of the black boxes in use today use magnetic
tape, which was first introduced in the 1960s, airlines are
moving to solid-state memory boards, which came along in the
1990s. Magnetic tape works like any tape recorder. The Mylar
tape is pulled across an electromagnetic head, which leaves
a bit of data on the tape.

Black-box manufacturers are no longer making magnetic tape
recorders as airlines begin a full transition to solid-state
technology.

Why do people have red eyes in flash photographs?

2010-06-07T08:56:00.001-07:00

We've all see photographs where the people in the picture
have spooky red eyes. These are photos taken at night with
a flash. Where do the red eyes come from?

The red color comes from light that reflects off of the
retinas in our eyes. In many animals, including dogs, cats
and deer, the retina has a special reflective layer called
the tapetum lucidum that acts almost like a mirror at the
backs of their eyes. If you shine a flashlight or headlights
into their eyes at night, their eyes shine back with bright,
white light. Here is what Encyclopedia Britannica has to say
about the tapetum lucidum:

Among many nocturnal vertebrates the white compound
guanine is found in the epithelium or retina of the eye. This
provides a mirrorlike surface, the tapetum lucidum, which
reflects light outward and thereby allows a second chance for
its absorption by visual pigments at very low light
intensities. Tapeta lucida produce the familiar eyeshine of
nocturnal animals.

Humans don't have this tapetum lucidum layer in their
retinas. If you shine a flashlight in a person's eyes at
night, you don't see any sort of reflection. The flash on
a camera is bright enough, however, to cause a reflection off
of the retina -- what you see is the red color from the blood
vessels nourishing the eye.

Many cameras have a "red eye reduction" feature. In these
cameras, the flash goes off twice -- once right before the
picture is taken, and then again to actually take the picture.
The first flash causes people's pupils to contract, reducing
"red eye" significantly. Another trick is to turn on all the
lights in the room, which also contracts the pupil.

Another way to reduce or eliminate "red eye" in pictures is
to move the flash away from the lens. On most small cameras,
the flash is only an inch or two away from the lens, so the
reflection comes right back into the lens and shows up on the
film. If you can detach the flash and hold it several feet
away from the lens, that helps a lot. You can also try
bouncing the flash off the ceiling if that is an option.

Biometric Mice

2010-06-07T08:55:00.001-07:00

Biometric mice add security to your computer system by
permitting only authorized users to control the mouse and
access the computer. Protection is accomplished with
an integrated fingerprint reader either in the receiver or
the mouse. This feature enhances security and adds
convenience because you can use your fingerprint rather than
passwords for a secure login.

To use the biometric feature, a software program that comes
with the mouse registers fingerprints and stores information
about corresponding authorized users. Some software programs
also let you encrypt and decrypt files.

Wireless Mice

2010-06-07T08:54:00.001-07:00

Most wireless mice use radio frequency (RF) technology to
communicate information to your computer. Being radio-based,
RF devices require two main components: a transmitter and
a receiver. Here's how it works:

* The transmitter is housed in the mouse. It sends
an electromagnetic (radio) signal that encodes the
information about the mouse's movements and the buttons you
click.
* The receiver, which is connected to your computer,
accepts the signal, decodes it and passes it on to the mouse
driver software and your computer's operating system.
* The receiver can be a separate device that plugs into
your computer, a special card that you place in an expansion
slot, or a built-in component.

Many electronic devices use radio frequencies to communicate.
Examples include cellular phones, wireless networks, and
garage door openers. To communicate without conflicts,
different types of devices have been assigned different
frequencies. Newer cell phones use a frequency of 900
megahertz, garage door openers operate at a frequency of 40
megahertz, and 802.11b/g wireless networks operate at 2.4
gigahertz. Megahertz (MHz) means "one million cycles per
second," so "900 megahertz" means that there are 900 million
electromagnetic waves per second. Gigahertz (GHz) means "one
billion cycles per second." To learn more about RF and
frequencies, see How the Radio Spectrum Works.

Unlike infrared technology, which is commonly used for
short-range wireless communications such as television remote
controls, RF devices do not need a clear line of sight
between the transmitter (mouse) and receiver. Just like other
types of devices that use radio waves to communicate,
a wireless mouse signal can pass through barriers such as
a desk or your monitor.

RF technology provides a number of additional benefits for
wireless mice. These include:

* RF transmitters require low power and can run on
batteries
* RF components are inexpensive
* RF components are light weight

As with most mice on the market today, wireless mice use
optical sensor technology rather than the earlier track-ball
system. Optical technology improves accuracy and lets you use
the wireless mouse on almost any surface -- an important
feature when you're not tied to your computer by a cord.

Pairing and Security
In order for the transmitter in the mouse to communicate with
its receiver, they must be paired. This means that both
devices are operating at the same frequency on the same
channel using a common identification code. A channel is
simply a specific frequency and code. The purpose of pairing
is to filter out interference from other sources and RF
devices.

Pairing methods vary, depending on the mouse manufacturer.
Some devices come pre-paired. Others use methods such as
a pairing sequence that occurs automatically, when you push
specific buttons, or when you turn a dial on the receiver
and/or mouse.

To protect the information your mouse transmits to the
receiver, most wireless mice include an encryption scheme to
encode data into an unreadable format. Some devices also use
a frequency hopping method, which causes the mouse and
receiver to automatically change frequencies using
a predetermined pattern. This provides additional protection
from interference and eavesdropping.

Bluetooth Mice

One of the RF technologies that wireless mice commonly use is
Bluetooth. Bluetooth technology wirelessly connects
peripherals such as printers, headsets, keyboards and mice to
Bluetooth-enabled devices such as computers and personal
digital assistants (PDAs). Because a Bluetooth receiver can
accommodate multiple Bluetooth peripherals at one time,
Bluetooth is also known as a personal area network (PAN).
Bluetooth devices have a range of about 33 feet (10 meters).

Bluetooth operates in the 2.4 GHz range using RF technology.
It avoids interference among multiple Bluetooth peripherals
through a technique called spread-spectrum frequency hopping.
WiFi devices such as 802.11b/g wireless networks also operate
in the 2.4 GHz range, as do some cordless telephonescordless
telephones and microwave ovens. Version 1.2 of Bluetooth
provides adaptive frequency hopping (AFH), which is
an enhanced frequency-hopping technology designed to avoid
interference with other 2.4 GHz communications.

RF Mice

The other common type of wireless mouse is an RF device that
operates at 27 MHz and has a range of about 6 feet (2
meters). More recently, 2.4 GHz RF mice have hit the market
with the advantage of a longer range -- about 33 feet (10
meters) and faster transmissions with less interference.
Multiple RF mice in one room can result in cross-talk, which
means that the receiver inadvertently picks up the
transmissions from the wrong mouse. Pairing and multiple
channels help to avoid this problem.

Typically, the RF receiver plugs into a USB port and does not
accept any peripherals other than the mouse (and perhaps
a keyboard, if sold with the mouse). Some portable models
designed for use with notebook computers come with a compact
receiver that can be stored in a slot inside the mouse when
not in use.

Mouse Innovations

As with many computer-related devices, mice are being
combined with other gadgets and technologies to create
improved and multipurpose devices. Examples include
multi-media mice, combination mice/remote controls, gaming
mice, biometric mice, tilting wheel mice and motion-based
mice. To learn more about innovations in mouse technology,
let's start with multi-media mice and combination mice/remote
controls.
Multi-Media Mouse and Combination Mouse/Remote

These types of mice are used with multimedia systems such as
the Windows XP Media Center Edition computers. Some combine
features of a mouse with additional buttons (such as play,
pause, forward, back and volume) for controlling media.
Others resemble a television/media player remote control with
added features for mousing. Remote controls generally use
infrared sensors but some use a combination of infrared and
RF technology for greater range.

Gaming Mice
Gaming mice are high-precision, optical mice designed for
use with PCs and game controllers. Features may include:

* Multiple buttons for added flexibility and functions
such as adjusting dpi rates on the fly
* Wireless connectivity and an optical sensor
* Motion feedback and two-way communication

Motion-Based Mice
Yet another innovation in mouse technology is motion-based
control. With this feature, you control the mouse pointer by
waving the mouse in the air.

The technology patented by one manufacturer, Gyration,
incorporates miniature gyroscopes to track the motion of the
mouse as you wave it in the air. It uses an electromagnetic
transducer and sensors to detect rotation in two axes at the
same time. The mouse operates on the principle of the
Coriolis Effect, which is the apparent turning of an object
that's moving in relation to another rotating object. The
device and accompanying software converts the mouse movements
into movements on the computer's screen. The mice also
include an optical sensor for use on a desktop.

Optical Mice

2010-06-07T08:53:00.001-07:00

Developed by Agilent Technologies and introduced to the
world in late 1999, the optical mouse actually uses a tiny
camera to take thousands of pictures every second.

Able to work on almost any surface without a mouse pad, most
optical mice use a small, red light-emitting diode (LED) that
bounces light off that surface onto a complimentary
metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) sensor. In addition to LEDs,
a recent innovation are laser-based optical mice that detect
more surface details compared to LED technology. This results
in the ability to use a laser-based optical mouse on even
more surfaces than an LED mouse.

Here's how the sensor and other parts of an optical mouse
work together

# The CMOS sensor sends each image to a digital signal
processor (DSP) for analysis.
# The DSP detects patterns in the images and examines how the
patterns have moved since the previous image.
# Based on the change in patterns over a sequence of images,
the DSP determines how far the mouse has moved and sends the
corresponding coordinates to the computer.
# The computer moves the cursor on the screen based on the
coordinates received from the mouse. This happens hundreds of
times each second, making the cursor appear to move very
smoothly.

Optical mice have several benefits over track-ball mice:

* No moving parts means less wear and a lower chance of
failure.
* There's no way for dirt to get inside the mouse and
interfere with the tracking sensors.
* Increased tracking resolution means a smoother
response.
* They don't require a special surface, such as a mouse
pad.

Optical Mouse Accuracy

A number of factors affect the accuracy of an optical mouse.
One of the most important aspects is resolution. The
resolution is the number of pixels per inch that the optical
sensor and focusing lens "see" when you move the mouse.
Resolution is expressed as dots per inch (dpi). The higher
the resolution, the more sensitive the mouse is and the less
you need to move it to obtain a response.

Most mice have a resolution of 400 or 800 dpi. However, mice
designed for playing electronic games can offer as much as
1600 dpi resolution. Some gaming mice also allow you to
decrease the dpi on the fly to make the mouse less sensitive
in situations when you need to make smaller, slower
movements.

Historically, corded mice have been more responsive than
wireless mice. This fact is changing, however, with the
advent of improvements in wireless technologies and optical
sensors. Other factors that affect quality include:

* Size of the optical sensor -- larger is generally
better, assuming the other mouse components can handle the
larger size. Sizes range from 16 x 16 pixels to 30 x 30
pixels.
* Refresh rate -- it is how often the sensor samples
images as you move the mouse. Faster is generally better,
assuming the other mouse components can process them. Rates
range from 1500 to 6000 samples per second.
* Image processing rate -- is a combination of the size
of the optical sensor and the refresh rate. Again, faster is
better and rates range from 0.486 to 5.8 megapixels per
second.
* Maximum speed -- is the maximum speed that you can move
the mouse and obtain accurate tracking. Faster is better and
rates range from 16 to 40 inches per second.

Computer Mice

2010-06-07T08:51:00.001-07:00

Mice first broke onto the public stage with the introduction
of the Apple Macintosh in 1984, and since then they have
helped to completely redefine the way we use computers.

Every day of your computing life, you reach out for your
mouse whenever you want to move your cursor or activate
something. Your mouse senses your motion and your clicks and
sends them to the computer so it can respond appropriately.

Evolution of the Computer Mouse

It is amazing how simple and effective a mouse is, and it is
also amazing how long it took mice to become a part of
everyday life. Given that people naturally point at things --
usually before they speak -- it is surprising that it took so
long for a good pointing device to develop. Although
originally conceived in the 1960s, a couple of decades passed
before mice became mainstream.

In the beginning, there was no need to point because
computers used crude interfaces like teletype machines or
punch cards for data entry. The early text terminals did
nothing more than emulate a teletype (using the screen to
replace paper), so it was many years (well into the 1960s and
early 1970s) before arrow keys were found on most terminals.
Full screen editors were the first things to take real
advantage of the cursor keys, and they offered humans the
first way to point.

Light pens were used on a variety of machines as a pointing
device for many years, and graphics tablets, joy sticks and
various other devices were also popular in the 1970s. None of
these really took off as the pointing device of choice,
however.

When the mouse hit the scene -- attached to the Mac, it was
an immediate success. There is something about it that is
completely natural. Compared to a graphics tablet, mice are
extremely inexpensive and they take up very little desk
space. In the PC world, mice took longer to gain ground,
mainly because of a lack of support in the operating system.
Once Windows 3.1 made Graphical User Interfaces (GUIs)
a standard, the mouse became the PC-human interface of choice
very quickly.

Inside a Mouse
The main goal of any mouse is to translate the motion of your
hand into signals that the computer can use. Let's take
a look inside a track-ball mouse to see how it works

A ball inside the mouse touches the desktop and rolls when
the mouse moves.

Two rollers inside the mouse touch the ball. One of the
rollers is oriented so that it detects motion in the X
direction, and the other is oriented 90 degrees to the first
roller so it detects motion in the Y direction. When the ball
rotates, one or both of these rollers rotate as well.

The rollers each connect to a shaft, and the shaft spins
a disk with holes in it. When a roller rolls, its shaft and
disk spin.

On either side of the disk there is an infrared LED and
an infrared sensor. The holes in the disk break the beam of
light coming from the LED so that the infrared sensor sees
pulses of light. The rate of the pulsing is directly related
to the speed of the mouse and the distance it travels.

An on-board processor chip reads the pulses from the infrared
sensors and turns them into binary data that the computer can
understand. The chip sends the binary data to the computer
through the mouse's cord.

In this optomechanical arrangement, the disk moves
mechanically, and an optical system counts pulses of light.
On this mouse, the ball is 21 mm in diameter. The roller is
7 mm in diameter. The encoding disk has 36 holes. So if the
mouse moves 25.4 mm (1 inch), the encoder chip detects 41
pulses of light.

You might have noticed that each encoder disk has two
infrared LEDs and two infrared sensors, one on each side of
the disk (so there are four LED/sensor pairs inside a mouse).
This arrangement allows the processor to detect the disk's
direction of rotation. There is a piece of plastic with
a small, precisely located hole that sits between the encoder
disk and each infrared sensor.

This piece of plastic provides a window through which the
infrared sensor can "see." The window on one side of the disk
is located slightly higher than it is on the other --
one-half the height of one of the holes in the encoder disk,
to be exact. That difference causes the two infrared sensors
to see pulses of light at slightly different times. There are
times when one of the sensors will see a pulse of light when
the other does not, and vice versa.

Connecting Computer Mice

Most mice on the market today use a USB connector to attach
to your computer. USB is a standard way to connect all kinds
of peripherals to your computer, including printers, digital
cameras, keyboards and mice.

Some older mice, many of which are still in use today, have
a PS/2 type connector. Instead of a PS/2 connector, a few
other older mice use a serial type of connector to attach to
a computer.

5 Tips for More Effective PowerPoint Presentations

2010-06-07T08:49:00.000-07:00

We've all been there: the never-ending meeting. What started
out as a potentially interesting presentation about a new
start-up company has turned into "death by PowerPoint." When
the presenter finally stops talking and the lights turn back
on, all you can remember is that you almost fell asleep.

The following are some helpful tips for making the most out
of a PowerPoint presentation.

1: Presentation First, PowerPoint Second

The biggest mistake people make when creating a PowerPoint
presentation is that they make PowerPoint the presentation's
focus. The focus should be on the presenter and on the
compelling story that he has to tell. PowerPoint is most
effective at providing supplementary information, like
simple, colorful graphs, but should never be the main source
of information. The worst thing a presenter can do is to turn
around and read from the PowerPoint screen. If all of the
information is on the screen, then there's no need for the
presenter.

2: Tell a Story

The goal of any presentation is to sell the audience on
an idea. It could be a pitch for investing in a new company,
a plan for reorganizing a business or a proposal for
a scientific research project. For the audience to understand
the presentation on an intellectual as well as an emotional
level, it needs to be told as a cohesive narrative -- a story.
The audience needs to know three things:

* Where we are now
* Where we want to end up
* How we're going to get there

PowerPoint slides should be used to communicate those three
simple ideas. This is best accomplished by simple text
statements, strong images and graphs.

3: Show It, Don't Write It

Human beings are highly visual learners. It's much easier for
our brains to remember a strong, unique image than a series
of facts and figures. PowerPoint is a great, easy-to-use
program for creating dozens of different types of graphs and
charts. Remember that the simpler and bigger the graph, the
better. For example, if you want to drive home the point that
Windows PCs control a large majority of the home computer
market, show a pie chart with a huge chunk of the pie filled
in with red and the word "PC." No matter how many stats you
quote, this image will get the message home faster and will
stick with the audience longer.

4: The Rule of 10

Guy Kawasaki -- former Apple "chief evangelist," venture
capitalist and professional speaking guru -- has established
his famous "Kawasaki Rule of Ten" in which he only uses 10
slides during a PowerPoint presentation, often in a "top 10"
fashion. Those 10 slides generally consist of nothing more
than a single sentence or phrase and a supporting image. The
10 slides give the audience powerful visual cues that
reinforce the message that Kawasaki is communicating. And
since the audience knows that there are only going to be 10
slides -- and 10 main points to cover during the presentation
-- they know when the presentation is about to end. Which
brings us to our final tip.

5: Keep it Short

No one ever complained about a PowerPoint presentation being
too short. The second an audience gets bored and stops paying
attention, the presentation loses its effectiveness. The
audience not only stops processing new information, but
begins to resent the presenter for wasting their time.
Kawasaki, for example, thinks that an ideal PowerPoint
presentation should last no longer than 20 minutes.

A Future Without the Landline?

2010-06-07T08:48:00.000-07:00

Even though landlines aren't off the radar yet, some people
are already starting to feel the impact of their decline. As
you might expect, major telephone providers are among those
affected by abandoned landlines, but some other unexpected
groups, like pollsters and politicians, are feeling the
effects as well.

Don't feel too sorry for the telephone companies though.
While major players like AT&T and Verizon get from one-third
to one-half of their revenue from land-based subscribers,
they won't necessarily lose those subscribers; they'll just
convert them to wireless subscribers instead. So perhaps the
companies are right not to be concerned about the drop-off in
landlines, but the landscape is undoubtedly changing.

For instance, phone companies are starting to face
competition from cable companies, like Time Warner and
Comcast, who have lured customers away with their
Internet-based communication offerings. Even as their
landline subscribers decline, the phone companies still have
to fork out billions of dollars a year to maintain the
networks.

As the phone companies puzzle over their future business
model, pollsters are starting to wonder about their own
ability to continue in a world without landlines. Polling
organizations rely mainly on calls to landline numbers.
Federal law prevents calls to cell phones by the computerized
systems most often used by pollsters, so public opinion
surveys could start to see skewed results. This is especially
true since the remaining landline users tend to come from
a particular demographic. They're more likely to be affluent,
homeowners, over age 30 and white.

Politicians, too, have had to alter their game since many of
their targeted constituents -- young voters -- are likely to
only have a cell. With cell phones, whether you're dialing or
receiving the call you have to pay for it, so this method of
communication is off limits to campaigns. Political
candidates have had to get creative in how they reach voters:
pop-up ads, blogs written by the candidate and Internet
commercials are some of the newer forms of outreach.

Although cell phones and VoIP are increasing in popularity,
landlines will probably stick around until coverage and
security improve. At least one good reason to use a landline
is that emergency service providers often still have
difficulty locating where cell phone calls originate. So
while landlines linger on for now, don't rule out having to
explain what a telephone pole was to your great-grandkids.

Landline phone

2010-06-07T08:47:00.000-07:00

Remember pay phones? Those telltale rectangular booths
situated at every other street corner for your calling
convenience? Well, it looks like Superman will have to find
a new place to change, because they're quickly becoming
a thing of the past (except in places like airports). If
current trends continue, landline phones may soon join pay
phones in the technology graveyard.

When was the last time you memorized someone's home number?
It's probably been a while, as more people are beginning to
make the majority of their calls on cell phones. In the U.S.
and Europe, roughly 75 percent of the respective populations
are wireless subscribers [source: Mobile Internet, Wireless
Industry News]. Some European countries even expect to exceed
100 percent wireless penetration soon, due to people
purchasing multiple devices.

As of late 2007, 16 percent of U.S. households had no
landline whatsoever, compared to just 5 percent in 2004. If
that rapid trend of ditching landlines continues, half of the
U.S. could be without one in about 10 years.

Among the people who have landlines in the U.S., 13 percent
nevertheless rely on their cell phones for the majority of
their calls. Across the country, people are hanging up their
home phones:

* In New York state, the number of landline subscribers
has fallen by 55 percent since the year 2000.
* New Jersey landline subscribers have decreased by 50
percent.
* Similar trends exist Down Under, where industry
analysts expect 1.4 million Aussies to cancel their landlines
by the end of 2008. [source: Associated Press, Cauley,
Woolrich].

Even businesses are ditching their wires for more economical
options, like WiFi and VoIP (voice over Internet protocol).
Ford's Detroit headquarters, for example, recently purchased
8,000 wireless phones for the staff and ripped up its
landlines. Eighty-five percent of the company's business is
now conducted wirelessly [source: Foster]. It's not just
major players like Ford who are embracing the new
technologies, either. In New Jersey, sanitation distributor
Laymen Global also has abandoned its landlines, except for
a few it's keeping for emergencies.

People who have made the switch cite several benefits.
Wireless communication saves money on local and long-distance
phone charges, frees people up from their desks and prevents
having to lay new cables. Laymen Global, the New Jersey
company, saved $4,600 on its phone bill by forgoing landlines.

Yet other people aren't convinced that landlines have
outstayed their welcome.

Ditching Your Landline Phone Service: Advantages and
Disadvantages

While VoIP, cell phones and other wireless communication
methods can save money, landline stalwarts don't believe
a switch is warranted. They argue that the cost of
replacement technology can easily eclipse the savings
recouped by not installing cable. In addition, local- and
long-distance phone charges may be cheaper, but that's not
always the case. Making VoIP calls from overseas, for
instance, can result in hefty charges.

Security is another factor for people to consider before
letting go of their landlines. It's much easier for hackers
to gain access to conversations on a cell phone or through
VoIP than it is on a traditional phone line. Some people on
the front lines of communications technology think that
security concerns could prevent many companies from turning
entirely away from landlines.

Interference may also pose a problem, depending on the
quality of the landline's replacement. While the quality of
WiFi and VoIP has improved significantly since the two
technologies first came out, they're not 100 percent reliable.
Some people claim crystal clear reception and say they can't
differentiate between wireless and landline calls, but unless
you carry around a portable cell tower, you probably still
encounter dead zones every now and then.

A final issue that may prevent the landline's demise is
simply nostalgia. Employers who do away with traditional
phones often regret it when they see their workers straying
farther and farther from their desks. The convenience of
wireless communication can just as easily be a distraction,
with salespeople chatting on the phone instead of focusing on
their next sale. If landlines disappear, the days of sitting
at your desk to complete the day's work may disappear, too.

If you can push those issues aside, the attractions of
ditching landlines are hard to ignore: no more costly
telephone switching stations, no more wires and fiber-optic
cables stretching for miles and no more unsightly telephone
poles (although you'd still have cell phone towers).

If you still find yourself having separation anxiety over the
possible disappearance of landline telephones, though, you're
not alone. Many people are fearful of what their
disappearance might mean.

Largest Carbon Sequestration Plant To Pump 3.3 Million Tons Of CO2 Into Ground

2010-06-07T08:46:00.000-07:00

Even before a single ounce of natural gas gets burned in
a home or power plant, massive amounts of CO2 have already
been released. The process of extracting natural gas releases
carbon dioxide pent up in the same wells as the gas, thus
adding to the climate-changing impact of the fuel.

To help lower the global warming impact of one of the world's
largest natural gas fields, General Electric has supplied
Chevron, Exxon Mobile and Shell with enough compression
"trains"--the pumps and turbines that do the sequestering--to
create the world's largest carbon sequestration project. The
trains will pump 3.3 million tons of CO2 released from
natural gas mining back into the ground every year. That's
the equivalent of taking 630,000 cars off the road.

The project, called Gorgon, won't go online for a couple of
years, and GE won't begin building the equipment trains for
at least another year or two. Once built, the trains will
redirect the CO2 back into an underground chamber 1.5 miles
under the ocean.

Naturally, this process does not stop the natural gas itself
from releasing greenhouse gases when burned for fuel. And why
name a project aiming for environmental soundness after
a terrifying monster with snakes for hair and a gaze that
turns men to stone? Someone at GE needs to get a copy of
Bulfinch's Mythology.

AeroTech Evolution Protective Bike Case Lets You Fly With Two Wheels

2010-06-07T08:44:00.000-07:00

If you're an avid rider of bikes, the rough part about
traveling is not just going without your set of wheels for
an extended period of time, but trying to transport them on
a plane--risking damage to the frame and wheels. The AeroTech
Evolution bike case seeks to change all that.

With vacuum-formed, impact- and temperature-resistant ABS
plastic the AeroTech Evolution fits bike frames of all shapes
and sizes, and by overlapping the wheels and positioning them
over the frame (they're locked in place to the case using
quick-release clamps), the entire bike fits into a package
roughly the size of a standard suitcase.

VLF & PI & BFO Technologies

2010-06-07T08:43:00.000-07:00

Very low frequency (VLF), also known as induction balance, is
probably the most popular detector technology in use today.
In a VLF metal detector, there are two distinct coils:

* Transmitter coil - This is the outer coil loop. Within
it is a coil of wire. Electricity is sent along this wire,
first in one direction and then in the other, thousands of
times each second. The number of times that the current's
direction switches each second establishes the frequency of
the unit.

* Receiver coil - This inner coil loop contains another
coil of wire. This wire acts as an antenna to pick up and
amplify frequencies coming from target objects in the ground.

The current moving through the transmitter coil creates
an electromagnetic field, which is like what happens in
an electric motor. The polarity of the magnetic field is
perpendicular to the coil of wire. Each time the current
changes direction, the polarity of the magnetic field changes.
This means that if the coil of wire is parallel to the ground,
the magnetic field is constantly pushing down into the ground
and then pulling back out of it.

As the magnetic field pulses back and forth into the ground,
it interacts with any conductive objects it encounters,
causing them to generate weak magnetic fields of their own.
The polarity of the object's magnetic field is directly
opposite the transmitter coil's magnetic field. If the
transmitter coil's field is pulsing downward, the object's
field is pulsing upward.

The receiver coil is completely shielded from the magnetic
field generated by the transmitter coil. However, it is not
shielded from magnetic fields coming from objects in the
ground. Therefore, when the receiver coil passes over
an object giving off a magnetic field, a small electric
current travels through the coil. This current oscillates at
the same frequency as the object's magnetic field. The coil
amplifies the frequency and sends it to the control box of
the metal detector, where sensors analyze the signal.

The metal detector can determine approximately how deep the
object is buried based on the strength of the magnetic field
it generates. The closer to the surface an object is, the
stronger the magnetic field picked up by the receiver coil
and the stronger the electric current generated. The farther
below the surface, the weaker the field. Beyond a certain
depth, the object's field is so weak at the surface that it
is undetectable by the receiver coil.

VLF Phase Shifting

How does a VLF metal detector distinguish between different
metals? It relies on a phenomenon known as phase shifting.
Phase shift is the difference in timing between the
transmitter coil's frequency and the frequency of the target
object. This discrepancy can result from a couple of things:

* Inductance - An object that conducts electricity easily
(is inductive) is slow to react to changes in the current.
You can think of inductance as a deep river: Change the
amount of water flowing into the river and it takes some time
before you see a difference.
* Resistance - An object that does not conduct
electricity easily (is resistive) is quick to react to
changes in the current. Using our water analogy, resistance
would be a small, shallow stream: Change the amount of water
flowing into the stream and you notice a drop in the water
level very quickly.

Basically, this means that an object with high inductance is
going to have a larger phase shift, because it takes longer
to alter its magnetic field. An object with high resistance
is going to have a smaller phase shift.

Phase shift provides VLF-based metal detectors with
a capability called discrimination. Since most metals vary in
both inductance and resistance, a VLF metal detector examines
the amount of phase shift, using a pair of electronic
circuits called phase demodulators, and compares it with the
average for a particular type of metal. The detector then
notifies you with an audible tone or visual indicator as to
what range of metals the object is likely to be in.

Many metal detectors even allow you to filter out
(discriminate) objects above a certain phase-shift level.
Usually, you can set the level of phase shift that is
filtered, generally by adjusting a knob that increases or
decreases the threshold. Another discrimination feature of
VLF detectors is called notching. Essentially, a notch is
a discrimination filter for a particular segment of phase
shift. The detector will not only alert you to objects above
this segment, as normal discrimination would, but also to
objects below it.

Advanced detectors even allow you to program multiple
notches. For example, you could set the detector to disregard
objects that have a phase shift comparable to a soda-can tab
or a small nail. The disadvantage of discrimination and
notching is that many valuable items might be filtered out
because their phase shift is similar to that of "junk." But,
if you know that you are looking for a specific type of
object, these features can be extremely useful.

PI Technology
A less common form of metal detector is based on pulse
induction (PI). Unlike VLF, PI systems may use a single coil
as both transmitter and receiver, or they may have two or
even three coils working together. This technology sends
powerful, short bursts (pulses) of current through a coil of
wire. Each pulse generates a brief magnetic field. When the
pulse ends, the magnetic field reverses polarity and
collapses very suddenly, resulting in a sharp electrical
spike. This spike lasts a few microseconds (millionths of
a second) and causes another current to run through the coil.
This current is called the reflected pulse and is extremely
short, lasting only about 30 microseconds. Another pulse is
then sent and the process repeats. A typical PI-based metal
detector sends about 100 pulses per second, but the number
can vary greatly based on the manufacturer and model, ranging
from a couple of dozen pulses per second to over a thousand.

If the metal detector is over a metal object, the pulse
creates an opposite magnetic field in the object. When the
pulse's magnetic field collapses, causing the reflected pulse,
the magnetic field of the object makes it take longer for the
reflected pulse to completely disappear. This process works
something like echoes: If you yell in a room with only a few
hard surfaces, you probably hear only a very brief echo, or
you may not hear one at all; but if you yell in a room with
a lot of hard surfaces, the echo lasts longer. In a PI metal
detector, the magnetic fields from target objects add their
"echo" to the reflected pulse, making it last a fraction
longer than it would without them.

A sampling circuit in the metal detector is set to monitor
the length of the reflected pulse. By comparing it to the
expected length, the circuit can determine if another
magnetic field has caused the reflected pulse to take longer
to decay. If the decay of the reflected pulse takes more than
a few microseconds longer than normal, there is probably
a metal object interfering with it.

The sampling circuit sends the tiny, weak signals that it
monitors to a device call an integrator. The integrator reads
the signals from the sampling circuit, amplifying and
converting them to direct current (DC). The direct current's
voltage is connected to an audio circuit, where it is changed
into a tone that the metal detector uses to indicate that
a target object has been found.

PI-based detectors are not very good at discrimination
because the reflected pulse length of various metals are not
easily separated. However, they are useful in many situations
in which VLF-based metal detectors would have difficulty,
such as in areas that have highly conductive material in the
soil or general environment. A good example of such
a situation is salt-water exploration. Also, PI-based systems
can often detect metal much deeper in the ground than other
systems.

BFO Technology
The most basic way to detect metal uses a technology called
beat-frequency oscillator (BFO). In a BFO system, there are
two coils of wire. One large coil is in the search head, and
a smaller coil is located inside the control box. Each coil
is connected to an oscillator that generates thousands of
pulses of current per second. The frequency of these pulses
is slightly offset between the two coils.

As the pulses travel through each coil, the coil generates
radio waves. A tiny receiver within the control box picks up
the radio waves and creates an audible series of tones
(beats) based on the difference between the frequencies.

If the coil in the search head passes over a metal object,
the magnetic field caused by the current flowing through the
coil creates a magnetic field around the object. The object's
magnetic field interferes with the frequency of the radio
waves generated by the search-head coil. As the frequency
deviates from the frequency of the coil in the control box,
the audible beats change in duration and tone.

The simplicity of BFO-based systems allows them to be
manufactured and sold for a very low cost. You can even make
one at home following the instructions on this page. But
these detectors do not provide the level of control and
accuracy provided by VLF or PI systems.

Buried Treasure
Metal detectors are great for finding buried objects. But
typically, the object must be within a foot or so of the
surface for the detector to find it. Most detectors have
a normal maximum depth somewhere between 8 and 12 inches (20
and 30 centimeters). The exact depth varies based on a number
of factors:

* The type of metal detector - The technology used for
detection is a major factor in the capability of the detector.
Also, there are variations and additional features that
differentiate detectors that use the same technology. For
example, some VLF detectors use higher frequencies than
others, while some provide larger or smaller coils. Plus, the
sensor and amplification technology can vary between
manufacturers and even between models offered by the same
manufacturer.

* The type of metal in the object - Some metals, such as
iron, create stronger magnetic fields than others.

* The size of the object - A dime is much harder to
detect at deep levels than a quarter.

* The makeup of the soil - Certain minerals are natural
conductors and can seriously interfere with the metal
detector.

* The object's halo - When certain types of metal objects
have been in the ground for a long time, they can actually
increase the conductivity of the soil around them.

* Interference from other objects - This can be items in
the ground, such as pipes or cables, or items above ground,
like power lines.

Hobbyist metal detecting is a fascinating world with several
sub-groups. Here are some of the more popular activities:

* Coin shooting - looking for coins after a major event,
such as a ball game or concert, or just searching for old
coins in general
* Prospecting - searching for valuable metals, such as
gold nuggets
* Relic hunting - searching for items of historical
value, such as weapons used in the U.S. Civil War
* Treasure hunting - researching and trying to find
caches of gold, silver or anything else rumored to have been
hidden somewhere

Many metal-detector enthusiasts join local or national clubs
that provide tips and tricks for hunting. Some of these clubs
even sponsor organized treasure hunts or other outings for
their members.

Metal Detectors

2010-06-07T08:41:00.000-07:00

Mention the words metal detector and you'll get completely
different reactions from different people. For instance, some
people think of combing a beach in search of coins or buried
treasure. Other people think of airport security, or the
handheld scanners at a concert or sporting event.

The fact is that all of these scenarios are valid.
Metal-detector technology is a huge part of our lives, with
a range of uses that spans from leisure to work to safety.
The metal detectors in airports, office buildings, schools,
government agencies and prisons help ensure that no one is
bringing a weapon onto the premises. Consumer-oriented metal
detectors provide millions of people around the world with
an opportunity to discover hidden treasures (along with lots
of junk).

Anatomy of a Metal Detector
A typical metal detector is light-weight and consists of just
a few parts:

1. Stabilizer (optional) - used to keep the unit steady as
you sweep it back and forth
2. Control box - contains the circuitry, controls,
speaker, batteries and the microprocessor
3. Shaft - connects the control box and the coil; often
adjustable so you can set it at a comfortable level for your
height
4. Search coil - the part that actually senses the metal;
also known as the "search head," "loop" or "antenna"

Most systems also have a jack for connecting headphones, and
some have the control box below the shaft and a small display
unit above.

Operating a metal detector is simple. Once you turn the unit
on, you move slowly over the area you wish to search. In most
cases, you sweep the coil (search head) back and forth over
the ground in front of you. When you pass it over a target
object, an audible signal occurs. More advanced metal
detectors provide displays that pinpoint the type of metal it
has detected and how deep in the ground the target object is
located.

Metal detectors use one of three technologies:

* Very low frequency (VLF).
* Pulse induction (PI).
* Beat-frequency oscillation (BFO).

Haptic Systems

2010-06-07T08:40:00.000-07:00

There are several approaches to creating haptic systems.
Although they may look drastically different, they all have
two important things in common -- software to determine the
forces that result when a user's virtual identity interacts
with an object and a device through which those forces can be
applied to the user. The actual process used by the software
to perform its calculations is called haptic rendering.
A common rendering method uses polyhedral models to represent
objects in the virtual world. These 3-D models can accurately
portray a variety of shapes and can calculate touch data by
evaluating how force lines interact with the various faces of
the object. Such 3-D objects can be made to feel solid and
can have surface texture.

The job of conveying haptic images to the user falls to the
interface device. In many respects, the interface device is
analogous to a mouse, except a mouse is a passive device that
cannot communicate any synthesized haptic data to the user.
Let's look at a few specific haptic systems to understand how
these devices work.

*The PHANTOM® interface from SensAble Technologies was
one of the first haptic systems to be sold commercially. Its
success lies in its simplicity. Instead of trying to display
information from many different points, this haptic device
simulates touching at a single point of contact. It achieves
this through a stylus which is connected to a lamp-like arm.
Three small motors give force feedback to the user by
exerting pressure on the stylus. So, a user can feel the
elasticity of a virtual balloon or the solidity of a brick
wall. He or she can also feel texture, temperature and
weight.

The stylus can be customized so that it closely
resembles just about any object. For example, it can be
fitted with a syringe attachment to simulate what it feels
like to pierce skin and muscle when giving a shot.

*The CyberGrasp system, another commercially available
haptic interface from Immersion Corporation, takes
a different approach. This device fits over the user's entire
hand like an exoskeleton and adds resistive force feedback to
each finger. Five actuators produce the forces, which are
transmitted along tendons that connect the fingertips to the
exoskeleton. With the CyberGrasp system, users are able to
feel the size and shape of virtual objects that only exist in
a computer-generated world. To make sure a user's fingers
don't penetrate or crush a virtual solid object, the
actuators can be individually programmed to match the
object's physical properties.

*Researchers at Carnegie Mellon University are
experimenting with a haptic interface that does not rely on
actuated linkage or cable devices. Instead, their interface
uses a powerful electromagnet to levitate a handle that looks
a bit like a joystick. The user manipulates the levitated
tool handle to interact with computed environments. As she
moves and rotates the handle, she can feel the motion, shape,
resistance and surface texture of simulated objects. This is
one of the big advantages of a levitation-based technology:
It reduces friction and other interference so the user
experiences less distraction and remains immersed in the
virtual environment. It also allows constrained motion in six
degrees of freedom (compared to the entry-level Phantom
interface, which only allows for three active degrees of
freedom).

The one disadvantage of the magnetic levitation haptic
interface is its footprint. An entire cabinet is required to
house the maglev device, power supplies, amplifiers and
control processors. The user handle protrudes from a bowl
embedded in the cabinet top.

As you can imagine, systems like we've described here can be
quite expensive. That means the applications of the
technology are still limited to certain industries and
specialized types of training.

Applications of Haptic Technology

It's not difficult to think of ways to apply haptics. Video
game makers have been early adopters of passive haptics,
which takes advantage of vibrating joysticks, controllers and
steering wheels to reinforce on-screen activity. But future
video games will enable players to feel and manipulate
virtual solids, fluids, tools and avatars. The Novint Falcon
haptics controller is already making this promise a reality.
The 3-D force feedback controller allows you to tell the
difference between a pistol report and a shotgun blast, or to
feel the resistance of a longbow's string as you pull back
an arrow.

Graphical user interfaces, like those that define Windows and
Mac operating environments, will also benefit greatly from
haptic interactions. Imagine being able to feel graphic
buttons and receive force feedback as you depress a button.
Some touchscreen manufacturers are already experimenting with
this technology. Nokia phone designers have perfected
a tactile touchscreen that makes on-screen buttons behave as
if they were real buttons. When a user presses the button, he
or she feels movement in and movement out. He also hears
an audible click. Nokia engineers accomplished this by
placing two small piezoelectric sensor pads under the screen
and designing the screen so it could move slightly when
pressed. Everything -- movement and sound -- is synchronized
perfectly to simulate real button manipulation.

Although several companies are joining Novint and Nokia in
the push to incorporate haptic interfaces into mainstream
products, cost is still an obstacle. The most sophisticated
touch technology is found in industrial, military and medical
applications. Training with haptics is becoming more and more
common. For example, medical students can now perfect
delicate surgical techniques on the computer, feeling what
it's like to suture blood vessels in an anastomosis or inject
BOTOX into the muscle tissue of a virtual face. Aircraft
mechanics can work with complex parts and service procedures,
touching everything that they see on the computer screen.
And soldiers can prepare for battle in a variety of ways,
from learning how to defuse a bomb to operating a helicopter,
tank or fighter jet in virtual combat scenarios.

Haptic technology is also widely used in teleoperation, or
telerobotics. In a telerobotic system, a human operator
controls the movements of a robot that is located some
distance away. Some teleoperated robots are limited to very
simple tasks, such as aiming a camera and sending back visual
images. In a more sophisticated form of teleoperation known
as telepresence, the human operator has a sense of being
located in the robot's environment. Haptics now makes it
possible to include touch cues in addition to audio and
visual cues in telepresence models. It won't be long before
astronomers and planet scientists actually hold and
manipulate a Martian rock through an advanced haptics-enabled
telerobot -- a high-touch version of the Mars Exploration
Rover.

The Importance of Haptic Technology

In video games, the addition of haptic capabilities is nice
to have. It increases the reality of the game and, as
a result, the user's satisfaction. But in training and other
applications, haptic interfaces are vital. That's because the
sense of touch conveys rich and detailed information about
an object. When it's combined with other senses, especially
sight, touch dramatically increases the amount of information
that is sent to the brain for processing. The increase in
information reduces user error, as well as the time it takes
to complete a task. It also reduces the energy consumption
and the magnitudes of contact forces used in a teleoperation
situation.

Clearly, Samsung is hoping to capitalize on some of these
benefits with the introduction of the Anycall Haptic phone.
Nokia will push the envelope even farther when it introduces
phones with tactile touchscreens. Yes, such phones will be
cool to look at. And, yes, they will be cool to touch. But
they will also be easier to use, with the touch-based
features leading to fewer input errors and an overall more
satisfying experience.

Haptic Technology

2010-06-07T08:37:00.000-07:00

If you thought the Apple iPhone was amazing, then feast your
eyes -- and fingers -- on this phone from Samsung. Dubbed the
Anycall Haptic, the phone features a large touch-screen
display just like the iPhone. But it does Apple's
revolutionary gadget one better, at least for now: It enables
users to feel clicks, vibrations and other tactile input. In
all, it provides the user with 22 kinds of touch sensations.

Those sensations explain the use of the term haptic in the
name. Haptic is from the Greek "haptesthai," meaning to
touch. As an adjective, it means relating to or based on the
sense of touch. As a noun, usually used in a plural form
(haptics), it means the science and physiology of the sense
of touch. Scientists have studied haptics for decades, and
they know quite a bit about the biology of touch. They know,
for example, what kind of receptors are in the skin and how
nerves shuttle information back and forth between the central
nervous system and the point of contact.

Unfortunately, computer scientists have had great difficulty
transferring this basic understanding of touch into their
virtual reality systems. Visual and auditory cues are easy to
replicate in computer-generated models, but tactile cues are
more problematic. It is almost impossible to enable a user
to feel something happening in the computer's mind through
a typical interface. Sure, keyboards allow users to type in
words, and joysticks and steering wheels can vibrate. But how
can a user touch what's inside the virtual world? How, for
example, can a video game player feel the hard, cold steel of
his or her character's weapon? How can an astronaut, training
in a computer simulator, feel the weight and rough texture of
a virtual moon rock?

Since the 1980s, computer scientists have been trying to
answer these questions. Their field is a specialized subset
of haptics known as computer haptics. Over the next few
pages, we'll cover how haptic technology works by:

* relating computer haptics to related fields of haptics
research
* characterizing the types of haptic feedback required
for realistic virtual touching
* examining haptics systems either in development or
currently available on the market
* exploring current and potential applications

Of course, the promising future of haptics owes much to its
history. In the next section, we'll examine this history to
understand that computer haptics falls on a continuum of
haptics research.

The Haptics Continuum

As a field of study, haptics has closely paralleled the rise
and evolution of automation. Before the industrial revolution,
scientists focused on how living things experienced touch.
Biologists learned that even simple organisms, such as
jellyfish and worms, possessed sophisticated touch responses.
In the early part of the 20th century, psychologists and
medical researchers actively studied how humans experience
touch. Appropriately so, this branch of science became known
as human haptics, and it revealed that the human hand, the
primary structure associated with the sense of touch, was
extraordinarily complex.

With 27 bones and 40 muscles, including muscles located in
the forearm, the hand offers tremendous dexterity. Scientists
quantify this dexterity using a concept known as degrees of
freedom. A degree of freedom is movement afforded by a single
joint. Because the human hand contains 22 joints, it allows
movement with 22 degrees of freedom. The skin covering the
hand is also rich with receptors and nerves, components of
the nervous system that communicate touch sensations to the
brain and spinal cord.

Then came the development of machines and robots. These
mechanical devices also had to touch and feel their
environment, so researchers began to study how this sensation
could be transferred to machines. The era of machine haptics
had begun. The earliest machines that allowed haptic
interaction with remote objects were simple
lever-and-cable-actuated tongs placed at the end of a pole.
By moving, orienting and squeezing a pistol grip, a worker
could remotely control tongs, which could be used to grab,
move and manipulate an object.

In the 1940s, these relatively crude remote manipulation
systems were improved to serve the nuclear and hazardous
material industries. Through a machine interface, workers
could manipulate toxic and dangerous substances without
risking exposure. Eventually, scientists developed designs
that replaced mechanical connections with motors and
electronic signals. This made it possible to communicate even
subtle hand actions to a remote manipulator more efficiently
than ever before.

The next big advance arrived in the form of the electronic
computer. At first, computers were used to control machines
in a real environment (think of the computer that controls
a factory robot in an auto assembly plant). But by the 1980s,
computers could generate virtual environments -- 3-D worlds
into which users could be cast. In these early virtual
environments, users could receive stimuli through sight and
sound only. Haptic interaction with simulated objects would
remain limited for many years.

Then, in 1993, the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) constructed
a device that delivered haptic stimulation, finally making it
possible to touch and feel a computer-generated object. The
scientists working on the project began to describe their
area of research as computer haptics to differentiate it from
machine and human haptics. Today, computer haptics is defined
as the systems required -- both hardware and software -- to
render the touch and feel of virtual objects. It is a rapidly
growing field that is yielding a number of promising haptic
technologies.

Types of Haptic Feedback

When we use our hands to explore the world around us, we
receive two types of feedback -- kinesthetic and tactile. To
understand the difference between the two, consider a hand
that reaches for, picks up and explores a baseball. As the
hand reaches for the ball and adjusts its shape to grasp,
a unique set of data points describing joint angle, muscle
length and tension is generated. This information is
collected by a specialized group of receptors embedded in
muscles, tendons and joints.

Known as proprioceptors, these receptors carry signals to the
brain, where they are processed by the somatosensory region
of the cerebral cortex. The muscle spindle is one type of
proprioceptor that provides information about changes in
muscle length. The Golgi tendon organ is another type of
proprioceptor that provides information about changes in
muscle tension. The brain processes this kinesthetic
information to provide a sense of the baseball's gross size
and shape, as well as its position relative to the hand, arm
and body.

When the fingers touch the ball, contact is made between the
finger pads and the ball surface. Each finger pad is
a complex sensory structure containing receptors both in the
skin and in the underlying tissue. There are many types of
these receptors, one for each type of stimulus: light touch,
heavy touch, pressure, vibration and pain. The data coming
collectively from these receptors helps the brain understand
subtle tactile details about the ball. As the fingers
explore, they sense the smoother texture of the leather, the
raised coarseness of the laces and the hardness of the ball
as force is applied. Even the thermal properties of the ball
are sensed through tactile receptors.

Force feedback is a term often used to describe tactile
and/or kinesthetic feedback. As our baseball example
illustrates, force feedback is vastly complex. Yet, if
a person is to feel a virtual object with any fidelity, force
feedback is exactly the kind of information the person must
receive. Computer scientists began working on devices --
haptic interface devices -- that would allow users to feel
virtual objects via force feedback. Early attempts were not
successful. But as we'll see in the next section, a new
generation of haptic interface devices is delivering
an unsurpassed level of performance, fidelity and ease of
use.

Flying Tasers

2010-06-07T08:36:00.000-07:00

One popular variation on the conventional stun-gun design is
the Taser gun. Taser guns work the same basic way as ordinary
stun guns, except the two charge electrodes aren't
permanently joined to the housing. Instead, they are
positioned at the ends of long conductive wires, attached to
the gun's electrical circuit. Pulling the trigger breaks open
a compressed gas cartridge inside the gun. The expanding gas
builds pressure behind the electrodes, launching them through
the air, the attached wires trailing behind. (This is the
same basic firing mechanism as in a BB gun.)

The electrodes are affixed with small barbs so that they will
grab onto an attacker's clothing. When the electrodes are
attached, the current travels down the wires into the
attacker, stunning him in the same way as a conventional stun
gun.

The main advantage of this design is that you can stun
attackers from a greater distance (typically 15 to 20 feet /
4 to 6 meters). The disadvantage is that you only get one
shot -- you have to wind up and re-pack the electrode wires,
as well as load a new gas cartridge, each time you fire. Most
Taser models also have ordinary stun-gun electrodes, in case
the Taser electrodes miss the target.

Some Taser guns have a built in shooter-identification
system. When a police officer fires the Taser electrodes, the
gun releases dozens of confetti-sized identification tags.
These tags tell investigators which gun was fired, at what
location. Some Taser guns also have a computer system that
records the time and of every shot.

Tasers are only one way to conduct current over greater
distances. In the next section, we'll look a relatively new
long-range stun weapon that doesn't use any wires at all.

Disrupting the System

2010-06-07T08:34:00.002-07:00

The basic idea of a stun gun is to disrupt this communication
system. Stun guns generate a high-voltage, low-amperage
electrical charge. In simple terms, this means that the
charge has a lot of pressure behind it, but not that much
intensity. When you press the stun gun against an attacker
and hold the trigger, the charge passes into the attacker's
body. Since it has a fairly high voltage, the charge will
pass through heavy clothing and skin. But at around 3
milliamps, the charge is not intense enough to damage the
attacker's body unless it is applied for extended periods of
time.

It does dump a lot of confusing information into the
attacker's nervous system, however. This causes a couple of
things to happen:

* The charge combines with the electrical signals from
the attacker's brain. This is like running an outside current
into a phone line: The original signal is mixed in with
random noise, making it very difficult to decipher any
messages. When these lines of communication go down, the
attacker has a very hard time telling his muscles to move,
and he may become confused and unbalanced. He is partially
paralyzed, temporarily.

* The current may be generated with a pulse frequency
that mimics the body's own electrical signals. In this case,
the current will tell the attacker's muscles to do a great
deal of work in a short amount of time. But the signal
doesn't direct the work toward any particular movement. The
work doesn't do anything but deplete the attacker's energy
reserves, leaving him too weak to move (ideally).

At its most basic, this is all there is to incapacitating
a person with a stun gun -- you apply electricity to
a person's muscles and nerves. And since there are muscles
and nerves all over the body, it doesn't particularly matter
where you hit an attacker.

Standard Stun Gun
Conventional stun guns have a fairly simple design. They are
about the size of a flashlight, and they work on ordinary
9-volt batteries.

The batteries supply electricity to a circuit consisting of
various electrical components. The circuitry includes
multiple transformers, components that boost the voltage in
the circuit, typically to between 20,000 and 150,000 volts,
and reduce the amperage. It also includes a oscillator,
a component that fluctuates current to produce a specific
pulse pattern of electricity. This current charges
a capacitor. The capacitor builds up a charge, and releases
it to the electrodes, the "business end" of the circuit.

The electrodes are simply two plates of conducting metal
positioned in the circuit with a gap between them. Since the
electrodes are positioned along the circuit, they have a high
voltage difference between them. If you fill this gap with
a conductor (say, the attacker's body), the electrical pulses
will try to move from one electrode the other, dumping
electricity into the attacker's nervous system.

More Electrodes

These days, most stun-gun models have two pairs of electrodes:
an inner pair and an outer pair. The outer pair, the charge
electrodes, are spaced a good distance apart, so current will
only flow if you insert an outside conductor. If the current
can't flow across these electrodes, it flows to the inner
pair, the test electrodes. These electrodes are close enough
that the electric current can leap between them. The moving
current ionizes the air particles in the gap, producing
a visible spark and crackling noise. This display is mainly
intended as a deterrent: An attacker sees and hears the
electricity and knows you're armed. Some stun guns rely on
the element of surprise, rather than warning. These models
are disguised as umbrellas, flashlights or other everyday
objects so you can catch an attacker off guard.

These sorts of stun guns are popular with ordinary citizens
because they are small, easy-to-use, and legal in most areas.
Police and military forces, on the other hand, typically use
more complex stun-gun designs, with larger ranges.

Stun Guns

2010-06-07T08:34:00.001-07:00

On the old "Star Trek" series, Captain Kirk and his crew
never left the ship without their trusty phasers. One of the
coolest things about these weapons was the "stun" setting.
Unless things were completely out of control (as they
frequently were), the Enterprise crew always stunned their
adversaries, rendering them temporarily unconscious, rather
than killing them.

We're still a ways off from this futuristic weaponry, but
millions of police officers, soldiers and ordinary citizens
do carry real-life stun weapons to protect against personal
attacks. Like the fictional phasers of "Star Trek," these
devices are designed to temporarily incapacitate a person
without doing any long-term damage.

The Body's Electrical System

We tend to think of electricity as a harmful force to our
bodies. If lightning strikes you or you stick your finger in
an electrical outlet, the current can maim or even kill you.
But in smaller doses, electricity is harmless. In fact, it is
one of the most essential elements in your body. You need
electricity to do just about anything.

When you want to make a sandwich, for example, your brain
sends electricity down a nerve cell, toward the muscles in
your arm. The electrical signal tells the nerve cell to
release a neurotransmitter, a communication chemical, to the
muscle cells. This tells the muscles to contract or expand in
just the right way to put your sandwich together. When you
pick up the sandwich, the sensitive nerve cells in your hand
send an electrical message to the brain, telling you what the
sandwich feels like. When you bite into it, your mouth sends
signals to your brain to tell you how it tastes.

In this way, the different parts of your body use electricity
to communicate with one another. This is actually a lot like
a telephone system or the Internet. Specific patterns of
electricity are transmitted over lines to deliver
recognizable messages.

It's About Time: A Power Line That Sheds Heavy Ice

2010-06-07T08:33:00.001-07:00

Tired of Jack Frost knocking out your power? Victor Petrenko,
an engineering professor at Dartmouth College, has developed
de-icing technology that could save power lines from ice
storms.

Until now, the only answer to frozen lines has been to hope
that they don’t break or pull down poles under the weight of
the ice. A single ice storm in early December left more than
1.25 million people in Pennsylvania, New England and New York
shivering in the dark after ice storms snapped power lines.

Petrenko’s trick is to increase the electrical resistance in
cables, something engineers usually avoid because it causes
lines to lose energy as heat. Attached to each end of a line,
his device switches the wires inside from a standard parallel
layout to a series circuit. In normal conditions, the cable
works like a standard power line, but flipping the line to
series increases resistance, and the wires generate enough
heat to shed the ice. The process takes 30 seconds to three
minutes and saps less than 1 percent of the electricity
running through the lines. Utility companies could switch the
lines remotely, and Petrenko says swapping in his cables
would cost less than repairing ice damage.

This summer he tested the technology between two transmission
towers near Orenburg, Russia; China is considering the device
to protect its $170-billion investment in expanding its
energy grid. This fall, Petrenko will test a modified version
of the tech on an Audi A8 that he expects will de-ice its
windshield in two to four seconds. Later, he’ll apply the
tech to airplane wings, which could reduce delays and crashes.
“A plane that could shed ice in seconds,” he says, “would be
a much safer way to fly.”

Lunar Digging Bots Roll Away with $750,000 in Prizes

2010-06-07T08:32:00.001-07:00

Robot diggers successfully completed a timed trial for the
first time at NASA's lunar dirt excavation challenge.

Robots have finally risen to meet NASA's moon dirt digging
competition after three years of failure. Three robotics
teams took away a total of $750,000 in prize money by proving
they could dig at least 330 pounds of simulated lunar regolith
within half an hour.

The first place robot alone excavated 1,103 pounds of dirt
and deposited it in a container within the time limit.
Competitors not only had to dig out the sticky regolith
grains, but also had to be light enough to meet a weight
restriction of no more than 176 pounds.

Timed trials took place this past Sunday at NASA's Ames
Research Center in California. The U.S. space agency has
previously tested other robots and lunar digging equipment in
Hawaii.

SPACE.com reports that Paul's Robotics of Worcester, Mass.
claimed the top prize of $500,000. Two California teams,
Terra Engineering and Team Braundo, took home the second and
third place prizes of $150,000 and $100,000, respectively.

The robotic runoff came as part of NASA's "Centennial
Challenges," which have previously included extreme
competitions to build space elevators.

Microsoft Windows 7 (Finally) Comes Home

2010-06-07T08:31:00.001-07:00

It's been 10 months since the code for the Windows 7 beta
leaked to BitTorrent. That leak was quickly followed by
an official free beta release the first week of January and
a release candidate in April. Hardware manufacturers have had
their hands on the final version since July, and today is
finally your day--the day you can buy a machine running
Windows 7 pre-installed.

In fact, Microsoft today started selling third-party hardware
from their Web site for the first time in tandem with the
launch. Obviously there's a lot that's been refined and
tweaked with the new Windows, but one of the biggest
additions is the incorporation of multitouch display support
in the OS's core. So naturally, pretty much every major
hardware manufacturer had a landslide of new desktops,
laptops and netbooks designed for Win 7. Check out our
multiouch hardware gallery to see our picks for the eight
best-in-breed Win7 machines.

Testing and Health Risks foe Cell-Phone Radiation

2010-06-07T07:44:00.000-07:00

Potential Health Risks

In the late 1970s, concerns were raised that magnetic fields
from power lines were causing leukemia in children.
Subsequent epidemiological studies found no connection
between cancer and power lines. A more recent health scare
related to everyday technology is the potential for radiation
damage caused by cell phones. Studies on the issue continue
to contradict one another.

All cell phones emit some amount of electromagnetic radiation.
Given the close proximity of the phone to the head, it is
possible for the radiation to cause some sort of harm to the
118 million cell-phone users in the United States. What is
being debated in the scientific and political arenas is just
how much radiation is considered unsafe, and if there are any
potential long-term effects of cell-phone radiation exposure.

There are two types of electromagnetic radiation:

* Ionizing radiation - This type of radiation contains
enough electromagnetic energy to strip atoms and molecules
from the tissue and alter chemical reactions in the body.
Gamma rays and X-rays are two forms of ionizing radiation. We
know they cause damage, which is why we wear a lead vest when
X-rays are taken of our bodies.

* Non-ionizing radiation - Non-ionizing radiation is
typically safe. It causes some heating effect, but usually
not enough to cause any type of long-term damage to tissue.
Radio-frequency energy, visible light and microwave radiation
are considered non-ionizing.

On its Web site, the FDA states that "the available
scientific evidence does not demonstrate any adverse health
effects associated with the use of mobile phones." However,
that doesn't mean that the potential for harm doesn't exist.
Radiation can damage human tissue if it is exposed to high
levels of RF radiation, according to the FCC. RF radiation
has the ability to heat human tissue, much like the way
microwave ovens heat food. Damage to tissue can be caused by
exposure to RF radiation because the body is not equipped to
dissipate excessive amounts of heat. The eyes are
particularly vulnerable due to the lack of blood flow in that
area.

The added concern with non-ionizing radiation, the type of
radiation associated with cell phones, is that it could have
long-term effects. Although it may not immediately cause
damage to tissue, scientists are still unsure about whether
prolonged exposure could create problems. This is
an especially sensitive issue today, because more people are
using cell phones than ever before. In 1994, there were 16
million cell-phone users in the United States alone. As of
July 17, 2001, there were more than 118 million.

Here are a few illnesses and ailments that have potential
links to cell-phone radiation:

* Cancer
* Brain tumors
* Alzheimer's
* Parkinson's
* Fatigue
* Headaches

Studies have only muddled the issue. As with most
controversial topics, different studies have different
results. Some say that cell phones are linked to higher
occurrences of cancer and other ailments, while other studies
report that cell-phone users have no higher rate of cancer
than the population as a whole. No study to date has provided
conclusive evidence that cell phones can cause any of these
illnesses. However, there are ongoing studies that are
examining the issue more closely. See the links page at the
end of this article for more information on these studies.

At high levels, radio-frequency energy can rapidly heat
biological tissue and cause damage such as burns, according
to a recent report from the U.S. General Accounting Office
(GAO), a nonpartisan congressional agency that audits federal
programs. The report went on to state that mobile phones
operate at power levels well below the point at which such
heating effects would take place. The amount of radiation
emitted from the devices is actually minute, and the U.S.
federal government places limits on how much radiation a cell
phone can emit.

In the next section, we'll look into how cell-phone radiation
levels are tested.

Testing for Radiation

Every cell-phone model has to be tested and meet FCC
standards before it is allowed to be sold in the United
States. Testing is primarily done by the manufacturers
themselves, which creates some uncertainty about the testing
procedures, according to a GAO report.

The exposure limit set by the FCC for cell phones is based on
the overall heating effects of radio-frequency energy. The
exposure limit was established by the FCC in 1996. A year
later, the FCC published non-mandatory testing guidelines
that helped manufacturers comply with exposure limits. The
FCC still allows other testing techniques once an FCC review
of the procedures is completed.

Radiation levels are tested based on the specific absorption
rate (SAR), which is a way of measuring the amount of
radio-frequency energy that is absorbed by the human body. In
order to gain an FCC license, a phone's maximum SAR level
must be less than 1.6 watts per kilogram (W/kg). In 2000, the
Cellular Telecommunications & Internet Association (CTIA)
ordered cell-phone manufacturers to place labels on phones
disclosing radiation levels.

Testing techniques vary somewhat, but are generally pretty
standard. The GAO report "Research and Regulatory Efforts on
Mobile Phone Health Issues," published in May 2001, describes
how SAR levels are checked. Here is what the report described:

1. A mold shaped like a human head and torso is filled
with a fluid mixture that is designed to simulate the
electrical properties of human tissue.
2. The cell phone under review is placed on the outside of
the mold.
3. A probe attached to a computer-controlled mechanical
arm is inserted into the mixture at various locations.
4. The phone is made to transmit a signal at full power
while the probe is moved through the mixture.

During the test, the phone's antenna is extended and
retracted in order to check for any fluctuations in radiation
that the phone might demonstrate in different configurations.
The manufacturer is supposed to submit the highest SAR level
measured during these tests to the FCC. Phones are required
to test below 1.6 W/kg averaged over 1 gram of fluid.

To find the specific absorption rate of your phone, you can
visit this FCC Web site. Your phone should have an FCC
identification code. Type that code in the correct field and
the site should offer information on your device.

Due to the lack of any industry-wide testing standard, the
FCC must evaluate the individual procedures used by each
manufacturer in certifying the SAR level of each new phone,
according to the GAO report.

It's still unclear as to whether cell phones actually cause
any significant damage to the human body. Studies continue to
contradict one another on the issue. Additional studies may
shed some light on the true effects of cell-phone radiation,
but will likely only confuse consumers even further. In the
meantime, millions of cell-phone users take whatever risk may
be involved in using the devices.

Cell-phone Radiation

2010-06-07T07:41:00.000-07:00

Just by their basic operation, cell phones have to emit
a small amount of electromagnetic radiation. If you've read
How Cell Phones Work, then you know that cell phones emit
signals via radio waves, which are comprised of
radio-frequency (RF) energy, a form of electromagnetic
radiation.

There's a lot of talk in the news these days about whether or
not cell phones emit enough radiation to cause adverse health
effects. The concern is that cell phones are often placed
close to or against the head during use, which puts the
radiation in direct contact with the tissue in the head.
There's evidence supporting both sides of the argument.

Source of Radiation

When talking on a cell phone, a transmitter takes the sound
of your voice and encodes it onto a continuous sine wave. A
sine wave is just a type of continuously varying wave that
radiates out from the antenna and fluctuates evenly through
space. Sine waves are measured in terms of frequency, which
is the number of times a wave oscillates up and down per
second. Once the encoded sound has been placed on the sine
wave, the transmitter sends the signal to the antenna, which
then sends the signal out.

Cell phones have low-power transmitters in them. Most car
phones have a transmitter power of 3 watts. A handheld cell
phone operates on about 0.75 to 1 watt of power. The position
of a transmitter inside a phone varies depending on the
manufacturer, but it is usually in close proximity to the
phone's antenna. The radio waves that send the encoded signal
are made up of electromagnetic radiation propagated by the
antenna. The function of an antenna in any radio transmitter
is to launch the radio waves into space; in the case of cell
phones, these waves are picked up by a receiver in the
cell-phone tower.

Electromagnetic radiation is made up of waves of electric and
magnetic energy moving at the speed of light, according to
the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). All
electromagnetic energy falls somewhere on the electromagnetic
spectrum, which ranges from extremely low frequency (ELF)
radiation to X-rays and gamma rays. Later, you will learn
how these levels of radiation affect biological tissue.

When talking on a cell phone, most users place the phone
against the head. In this position, there is a good chance
that some of the radiation will be absorbed by human tissue.
In the next section, we will look at why some scientists
believe that cell phones are harmful, and you'll find out
what effects these ubiquitous devices may have.

Analog to Digital Advantages

2010-06-07T07:40:00.000-07:00

Switching from analog to digital let broadcasters offer
higher picture definition, because a digital signal can be
compressed far more than an analog signal. Compression allows
stations to fit more information in the signal. That means
you're getting a clearer image with digital television than
you would from an analog signal. In fact, even though digital
signals get weaker with distance, just as analog signals do,
digital signals won't degrade in quality. As long as you have
a signal, you'll get a clear picture.

There's another advantage of having additional bandwidth
available. Using digital broadcasting, local stations are
able to offer more programming to their viewers than they
could with an analog signal. How? Multicasting, or
broadcasting several shows within a single frequency. Many
stations across the United States are already multicasting.
For example, WRAL in Raleigh, N.C., broadcasts a 24-hour news
feed alongside its regular programming.

If you have a digital-to-analog converter box and
a terrestrial antenna, you can take advantage of your local
station's multicasting, if they offer it. Cable and satellite
providers may not necessarily add the additional stations to
their lineups, however, so you may not see them if you
subscribe.

If you still need a converter box, you may still be able to
get a $40 coupon from the U.S. government at dtv2009.gov, if
there are any still available. You could also buy a new
television with a digital tuner, if that's what you would
prefer, though that's a more expensive option.

Digital TV Conversion

2010-06-07T07:39:00.001-07:00

You might think that with the switch to digital television
you need to buy a new, expensive high-definition television
(HDTV) set. You can do that if you want to, and you'd have
many good reasons to do so. HDTV offers better sound,
a larger picture and a higher resolution. But despite the
drop in prices that has come with more players in the market,
these machines are still out of range of many household
budgets.

So do you have to buy a fancy new TV and junk the old one?
The simple answer is no. If your television has a digital
tuner -- the component that helps you tune into TV stations
-- already built in, you don't need a new TV. However, if
you're still using an older TV with an analog tuner built in,
like millions of people, the switch didn't make your TV
obsolete. In fact, it should clean up your reception, but it
won't make your television show look like high-definition
programming.

The difference in analog and digital is pretty simple. Unlike
digital broadcasting, which is either off or on, an analog
signal can waver in relation to factors such as the strength
of the signal. If you've ever had to get up to play with the
antenna on your TV to get a better picture, you'll appreciate
digital broadcasting. If your digital TV is getting a signal
at all, you're getting clear audio and video.

That said, if you have a TV with an analog tuner and
a terrestrial antenna -- not a satellite dish antenna -- you
need a digital-to-analog converter box to continue watching
TV now that the deadline for conversion has passed. You need
a converter for every tuner you have, whether it's for a TV
or for the videocassette recorder or digital video recorder
you use to record shows. So if you have a second TV in
another room, you need a box for that one, as long as it has
an analog tuner built in.

Televisions with digital tuners built in will probably be
labeled as such. If you aren't sure about yours, check your
owner's manual or contact the manufacturer for more
information. The Web is a good place to look; many companies
keep information on older models online for reference.

Do you subscribe to digital cable or satellite TV? If you do,
the box that goes on your TV handles the conversion for you.
In fact, the analog-to-digital switch really affected just
local broadcasters. Satellite and cable stations don't use
the same frequencies that your local network affiliates do.
So if you're not using an antenna to watch TV, the switch
didn't affect you.

Are you an analog cable subscriber? Here's a clue: If you
plug the cable directly into the back of your television,
your cable company might be offering you analog service. The
FCC requires cable companies to provide analog signals for
local stations that have switched to digital signals as long
as they offer analog feeds for any other channel. You may be
fine for now, but if you're concerned that your TV will go
dark in the future, you should contact your cable provider.

There are a few exceptions to the conversion rule, though.
Low-power, Class A and TV translator stations don't have to
make the switch to digital just yet. These stations are
usually rural or local community stations, and while they
didn't have to switch in June 2009, they'll be required to
switch over in the future.

If you watch one of these stations regularly, make sure to
get a converter box that has analog pass-through capability,
and you can continue to receive those channels. Otherwise,
you'll have to get a signal splitter and divide the signal
from your antenna for digital and analog stations.

At this point, you may be thinking this is all a pain in the
neck. But there are some advantages for switching to
a digital signal.

Do I really need a digital converter box for my TV?

2010-06-07T06:40:00.000-07:00

As important as television is to many people in the United
States, the technology behind the medium hasn't changed that
much since its introduction. Early television began in the
1870s, but TV didn't really catch on until the introduction
of electronic television in the early 20th century. Though
there were regular broadcasts, people at large didn't adopt
television until after World War II. In 1945, there were only
nine commercial TV stations broadcasting, but by 1949, there
were 48. And by 1960, there were 515 commercial stations,
with TVs in 85 percent of American homes.

Color TV was around as early as 1946, when CBS engineer Peter
Goldmark -- who also had a hand in creating the long-playing
vinyl record -- developed a method of broadcasting in color.
Unfortunately, his color-broadcasting standard wasn't
compatible with existing TV sets, and in 1953, the National
Television Standards Committee (NTSC) adopted RCA's method of
color broadcasting instead.

From there, we have incremental introductions -- the remote
control, cable and satellite providers, and videocassette
recorders (VCRs), et cetera. But in general, you don't have
to have all those things to watch TV. If you live in an area
near a broadcast station, you can still plug a pair of rabbit
ears into the antenna jack on the back of your set and get
programming.

On Feb. 17, 2009, some analog channels in the United States
went dark -- with a few exceptions, the rest did so on June
12. Regular broadcasters in the United States have completed
the transition to digital television (DTV). The reason?
Broadcasters moved their signals to another part of the radio
spectrum. One reason for the switch was to free up space for
police, fire and other public safety communications. The
remaining portion of the broadcast signal will be available
to consumers for wireless services.

The original date for the analog-to-digital transition had to
be moved because the FCC needed to raise awareness of the
change among the population. The idea was to make sure few
people are left behind, but their efforts caused some
confusion. To receive digital television signals, some people
need a converter box.

If you live in the United States and use a regular antenna to
get television signals over the air, this is probably the
reason why you can't see your old stations today.

The Glass Cable

2010-06-07T06:39:00.000-07:00

In 1976, a new sort of cable system debuted. This system used
fiber-optic cable for the trunk cables that carry signals
from the CATV head-end to neighborhoods. The head-end is
where the cable system receives programming from various
sources, assigns the programming to channels and retransmits
it onto cables. By the late 1970s, fiber optics had
progressed considerably and so were a cost-effective means of
carrying CATV signals over long distances. The great
advantage of fiber-optic cable is that it doesn't suffer the
same signal losses as coaxial cable, which eliminated the
need for so many amplifiers. In the early fiber-optic cable
systems, the number of amplifiers between head-end and
customer was reduced from 30 or 40 down to around six. In
systems implemented since 1988, the number of amplifiers has
been further reduced, to the point that only one or two
amplifiers are required for most customers. Decreasing the
number of amplifiers made dramatic improvements in signal
quality and system reliability.

Another benefit that came from the move to fiber-optic cable
was greater customization. Since a single fiber-optic cable
might serve 500 households, it became possible to target
individual neighborhoods for messages and services. In the
1990s, cable providers found this same neighborhood grouping
to be ideal for creating a local-area network and providing
Internet access through cable modems.

In 1989, General Instruments demonstrated that it was
possible to convert an analog cable signal to digital and
transmit it in a standard 6-MHz television channel. Using
MPEG compression, CATV systems installed today can transmit
up to 10 channels of video in the 6-MHz bandwidth of a single
analog channel. When combined with a 550-MHz overall
bandwidth, this allows the possibility of nearly 1,000
channels of video on a system. In addition, digital
technology allows for error correction to ensure the quality
of the received signal.

The move to digital technology also changed the quality of
one of cable television's most visible features: the
scrambled channel.

The first system to "scramble" a channel on a cable system
was demonstrated in 1971. In the first scrambling system, one
of the signals used to synchronize the television picture was
removed when the signal was transmitted, then reinserted by
a small device at the customer's home. Later scrambling
systems inserted a signal slightly offset from the channel's
frequency to interfere with the picture, then filtered the
interfering signal out of the mix at the customer's
television. In both cases, the scrambled channel could
generally be seen as a jagged, jumbled set of video images.

In a digital system, the signal isn't scrambled, but
encrypted. The encrypted signal must be decoded with the
proper key. Without the key, the digital-to-analog converter
can't turn the stream of bits into anything usable by the
television's tuner. When a "non-signal" is received, the
cable system substitutes an advertisement or the familiar
blue screen.

Adding Channels

2010-06-07T06:37:00.000-07:00

In the early 1950s, cable systems began experimenting with
ways to use microwave transmitting and receiving towers to
capture the signals from distant stations. In some cases,
this made television available to people who lived outside
the range of standard broadcasts. In other cases, especially
in the northeastern United States, it meant that cable
customers might have access to several broadcast stations of
the same network. For the first time, cable was used to
enrich television viewing, not just make ordinary viewing
possible. This started a trend that would begin to flower
fully in the 1970s.

The addition of CATV (community antenna television) stations
and the spread of cable systems ultimately led manufacturers
to add a switch to most new television sets. People could set
their televisions to tune to channels based on the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) frequency allocation plan, or
they could set them for the plan used by most cable systems.
The two plans differed in important ways.

In both tuning systems, each television station was given
a 6-megahertz (MHz) slice of the radio spectrum. The FCC had
originally devoted parts of the very high frequency (VHF)
spectrum to 12 television channels. The channels weren't put
into a single block of frequencies, but were instead broken
into two groups to avoid interfering with existing radio
services.

Later, when the growing popularity of television necessitated
additional channels, the FCC allocated frequencies in the
ultra-high frequency (UHF) portion of the spectrum. They
established channels 14 to 69 using a block of frequencies
between 470 MHz and 812 MHz.

Because they used cable instead of antennas, cable television
systems didn't have to worry about existing services.
Engineers could use the so-called mid-band, those frequencies
passed over by broadcast TV due to other signals, for
channels 14-22. Channels 1 through 6 are at lower frequencies
and the rest are higher. The "CATV/Antenna" switch tells the
television's tuner whether to tune around the mid-band or to
tune straight through it.

While we're on the subject of tuning, it's worth considering
why CATV systems don't use the same frequencies for stations
broadcasting on channels 1 to 6 that those stations use to
broadcast over the airwaves. Cable equipment is designed to
shield the signals carried on the cable from outside
interference, and televisions are designed to accept signals
only from the point of connection to the cable or antenna;
but interference can still enter the system, especially at
connectors. When the interference comes from the same channel
that's carried on the cable, there is a problem because of
the difference in broadcast speed between the two signals.

Radio signals travel through the air at a speed very close to
the speed of light. In a coaxial cable like the one that
brings CATV signals to your house, radio signals travel at
about two-thirds the speed of light. When the broadcast and
cable signals get to the television tuner a fraction of
a second apart, you see a double image called "ghosting."

In 1972, a cable system in Wilkes-Barre, PA, began offering
the first "pay-per-view" channel. The customers would pay to
watch individual movies or sporting events. They called the
new service Home Box Office, or HBO. It continued as
a regional service until 1975, when HBO began transmitting
a signal to a satellite in geosynchronous orbit and then down
to cable systems in Florida and Mississippi.
Scientific-Atlanta's Bill Wall says that these early
satellites could receive and retransmit up to 24 channels.
The cable systems receiving the signals used dish antennas 10
meters in diameter, with a separate dish for each channel!
With the beginning of satellite program delivery to cable
systems, the basic architecture of the modern cable system
was in place.

As the number of program options grew, the bandwidth of cable
systems also increased. Early systems operated at 200 MHz,
allowing 33 channels. As technology progressed, the bandwidth
increased to 300, 400, 500 and now 550 MHz, with the number
of channels increasing to 91. Two additional advances in
technology -- fiber optics and analog-to-digital conversion
-- improved features and broadcast quality while continuing
to increase the number of channels available.

How Cable Television Works

2010-06-07T06:35:00.000-07:00

In the 1950s, there were four television networks in the
United States. Because of the frequencies allotted to
television, the signals could only be received in a "line of
sight" from the transmitting antenna. People living in remote
areas, especially remote mountainous areas, couldn't see the
programs that were already becoming an important part of U.S.
culture.

In 1948, people living in remote valleys in Pennsylvania
solved their reception problems by putting antennas on hills
and running cables to their houses. These days, the same
technology once used by remote hamlets and select cities
allows viewers all over the country to access a wide variety
of programs and channels that meet their individual needs and
desires. By the early 1990s, cable television had reached
nearly half the homes in the United States.

Today, U.S. cable systems deliver hundreds of channels to
some 60 million homes, while also providing a growing number
of people with high-speed Internet access. Some cable systems
even let you make telephone calls and receive new programming
technologies! In this article, we'll show you how cable
television brings you so much information and such a wide
range of programs, from educational to inspirational to just
plain odd.

The earliest cable systems were, in effect, strategically
placed antennas with very long cables connecting them to
subscribers' television sets. Because the signal from the
antenna became weaker as it traveled through the length of
cable, cable providers had to insert amplifiers at regular
intervals to boost the strength of the signal and make it
acceptable for viewing. According to Bill Wall, technical
director for subscriber networks at Scientific-Atlanta,
a leading maker of equipment for cable television systems,
limitations in these amplifiers were a significant issue for
cable system designers in the next three decades.

"In a cable system, the signal might have gone through 30 or
40 amplifiers before reaching your house, one every 1,000
feet or so," Wall says. "With each amplifier, you would get
noise and distortion. Plus, if one of the amplifiers failed,
you lost the picture. Cable got a reputation for not having
the best quality picture and for not being reliable." In the
late 1970s, cable television would find a solution to the
amplifier problem. By then, they had also developed
technology that allowed them to add more programming to cable
service.

Installing and Concealing FlatWire

2010-06-07T06:33:00.000-07:00

Southwire says that the average consumer can install FlatWire
without the need for any special tools or training. Here's
what you need to install FlatWire:

* A marker
* A spray adhesive
* A plastic squeegee
* A drill or electric screwdriver
* Scissors
* A clamp if installing any FlatWire that requires custom
connectors
* Mesh tape and a concealing compound
* Sandpaper
* Paint

First, measure the distance between the power source and the
respective device. Southwire recommends that you add 8 inches
(20.3 centimeters) to both ends to be on the safe side.

Next, use the marker to draw the path the FlatWire will take.
You may not have a perfectly straight path from the power
source to the device. You can bend FlatWire 90 degrees with
a simple fold. Keep that in mind as you draw the pathway so
that you can keep the folds to a minimum.

If you're installing speaker wire, you'll use the spray
adhesive to attach the FlatWire to the wall. The adhesive
allows you to make adjustments before it tacks. Smooth out
the FlatWire with the squeegee to get rid of any bubbles or
wrinkles. You'll need to mount the anchors or wall boxes with
a drill or electric screwdriver. Now it's time to trim the
end of the FlatWire to the right size. Then you can attach
FlatWire to the appropriate connector or wall box and you're
ready to plug in your devices.

If you're installing a data, video or subwoofer wire, you'll
need to mount your wall boxes first, plug the FlatWire in and
test it, then adjust the length of the wire using the custom
connector. Determine how long the wire will need to be and
use the guide on the custom connector to align the connecter
with the pattern on the wire. Snap the connecter shut to hold
it in place, use a clamp to secure the connector, gently
break the guide away from the connector and cut the wire to
the right length.

Now you can glue the cable to the wall the same way you would
with speaker wire. Then you coat the wire with mesh and then
the concealing compound. Once the compound is dry, you sand
it smooth and then paint over it. Your wires are now
practically invisible.

FlatWire Safety

The thought of bands of copper attached to a wall conducting
electricity might worry some people. How safe is it? What are
the chances it will short out? What happens if after you
accidentally drive a nail through a wire while you're trying
to hang a picture?

The good news is that Southwire has already taken these
issues into consideration while designing FlatWire. Southwire
coats the copper bands in FlatWire with an insulating film
that doesn't conduct electricity. That means FlatWire is safe
to touch even when a current is running through it. The film
acts just like the insulating coating on a normal wire.

If you install FlatWire correctly, it can be safer than
normal wires and cables. Because you can trim FlatWire to the
right length, you don't have to worry about slack coils of
wires and cables. And because you can lay FlatWire almost
flush with any surface, you can avoid creating a tripping
hazard. You can even run FlatWire on your floor and lay
carpet on top of it.

If you were to pierce the FlatWire accidentally while it
conducted electricity, you'd create an electrical short. The
piercing object will cause the ground and neutral layers to
make contact with the hot layer. This causes a short circuit
-- the electrons flowing through the hot layer will flow back
through the neutral and ground layers.

The short circuit immediately trips your home's circuit
breaker and current ceases to flow through the wire. All of
this happens at an incredible speed. From the point of view
of the person putting a nail through an active FlatWire, it's
instantaneous.

At the 2009 Consumer Electronics Show, Southwire held several
demonstrations showing that driving a nail through the wire
would cause a short and trip a circuit breaker. At the time
of this article, Southwire is awaiting certification from the
Underwriters Laboratory for its 120 VAC electrical FlatWire.
Southwire has secured approval from the National Fire
Protection Association. Low-voltage FlatWire products are
already on the market.

FlatWire

2010-06-07T06:29:00.000-07:00

You've seen the commercials: a guy walks into an electronics
store, asks about the latest in flat-screen televisions,
makes a purchase and hurries home. Before you know it, the
happy owner is sitting on his couch watching his television,
which he has mounted perfectly on the wall. There's not
a cable, cord or wire to be seen.

But in reality, that television would require several cables
to work the way it does in the ad. It would need a power
cord, at the very least. Other cords might include a coaxial
cable, an HDMI cable, component or composite video cables and
an audio cable. How do you hide all these cables from view so
that you have the same picture-perfect setup that you see in
commercials?

One solution is to run wires through the walls of your home.
That can be expensive and difficult -- you might want the
help of professional installers for that kind of job. And
while wireless technologies are a possible solution, there
simply aren't enough wireless options on the market to set up
the ultimate home theater system. But one company has another
alternative: wires that are flat instead of round.

The company is Southwire. It specializes in creating thin,
flat wires and cables that you can glue to a wall and either
paint over or coat with a concealing material to blend it
into your wall. Once you've installed and concealed the
FlatWire, you can have that clean, cable-free look that you
see in the advertisements.

Southwire currently offers several FlatWire products for
audio, video, data and low-voltage wiring solutions. Future
FlatWire products will include 120-volt alternating current
(VAC) electrical wiring, HDMI cables and a cat-6 cable
emulator. All of the products are flexible and are about as
thick as a sheet of paper.

FlatWire and Electricity

FlatWire comes in several different types. The speaker wire
and low-voltage wire products look like a pair of copper
strips encased in a transparent film. The other FlatWire
products have narrower bands of copper encased in film.
Depending on the wire's function, there may be one, two or
three separate bands of copper. These narrow bands aren't
straight sheets of copper in a film -- they look like waves
or a series of peaks and valleys.

Copper is a conductor -- that means electricity can flow
freely through it. Copper's atomic structure is what makes it
a good conductor. The electrons in the outer energy level of
a copper atom repel one another and are relatively free. If
you introduce a flow of electrons into one end of a copper
wire, these valence electrons pass from atom to atom. The
result is a domino effect of electrons moving from one end of
the copper wire to another. The flow of electrons is what we
call electricity.

Each band is actually several layers of copper sheets
separated by an adhesive that acts as a dielectric layer. We
call a material dielectric if it doesn't conduct electricity
but does support electrostatic fields. In other words, it's
an insulator. We use the term dielectric when we're dealing
with materials that prevent conductive surfaces from coming
into contact with one another, usually in a capacitor.

The number of layers in each copper band depends upon the
purpose of the FlatWire. While it's possible to create
a multipurpose FlatWire that can meet multiple needs,
Southwire elected to design specific wires for specific uses.
The company did this to make installation easier and safer
for the average consumer -- there's a smaller chance that
a consumer will damage his or her electrical equipment or
suffer an injury.

Southwire's proposed 120 VAC FlatWire would have five layers.
Think of the layers like a sandwich. The central layer is the
hot layer. This is the layer that carries electrons from
a power source to a device. The layers on either side of this
central band of copper are the neutral layers. These provide
electrons with a normal pathway out from the device. The
outermost layers are the ground wires. The ground wire
prevents electronic devices with metal casings from becoming
shock hazards -- the ground wire connects to the metal
exterior of the device on one end and the ground on the
other.

FlatWire Connectors

Most people eventually ask the same question about FlatWire:
how do you hook it up to power sources and devices? If the
wires come in a flat, wide form, how do you attach
a connector? Southwire answers that question with
a collection of custom connectors.

Most of the FlatWire speaker wires require the installer to
use a guide Southwire calls the FlatWire Ready Strain Relief.
This is a guide that you adhere to the section of FlatWire
you need to trim. The guide shows you where to cut along the
wire. Then you can peel back the polymer film and expose the
copper. The guide also acts like a clamp on the end of the
FlatWire so that the polymer film doesn't peel back further
than necessary.

The speaker FlatWires require some work on the part of the
installer. For speakers that use banana plugs or pin
connectors, Southwire offers roller connectors that fit
directly on the end of the wire. FlatWire speaker wires have
two parallel strips of copper -- one is the positive
connection and the other is the negative. You insert the end
of each wire into its respective adapter. The adapter has
a plastic sleeve that rotates, allowing you to wrap the
copper around the pin inside the sleeve. This creates the
connection necessary to conduct electricity.

Another option for speaker cables is to use Southwire's
wall-mountable box. The box has speaker wire jacks on the
outside and a pair of gold spring contacts inside. To attach
the FlatWire to the box, you need to use a Strain Relief
guide to peel back the polymer coating on the FlatWire. You
fold the exposed ends of the FlatWire over the back of the
guide, place both the guide and the FlatWire inside the wall
box, make sure the wire touches the gold spring contacts and
seal the box.

FlatWire cables like subwoofer wires come with custom
connectors that have a special tab with a clear plastic
section that lays flat against the wire. You can slide these
connectors down the wire to adjust to the length you need.
The copper in these wires is in a special wave pattern -- in
order for the wire to work the wave must align with the
respective circuit board. You have to make sure the copper
band in the wire lines up with the window on the connector
before clamping the connector and cutting the wire. Otherwise
your wire won't carry a signal properly.

Top 5 Car Gadgets

2010-06-07T06:25:00.000-07:00

5: Keyless Ignition

John Book, the police officer that we're imagining has been
living in Amish society since the 1980s, is probably used to
shouting, "Throw me the keys!" to a fellow cop so that he can
hop in a car and chase after bad guys and ruffians. That's
why it will totally blow John Book's mind to know that now he
doesn't need to do any such thing.

Many cars have remote ignition, which is particularly helpful
on a winter day. With that gadget, you can push a button and
-- kazam! -- the car starts heating up for you, while
simultaneously locking the doors so no bad guys can steal it.
But if you really want to keep your hands free to battle
corruption, you should go keyless. With a keyless ignition
system, you keep a key fob in your pocket. A sensor will
detect the key fob's presence in the car and start; all the
driver has to do is push a button on the dash and press the
brake.

Crime fighters like John Book will be happy to know that this
system deters car thieves because of the personalized nature
of the fob codes and the system that reads them. Beyond just
battling hooligans, this system could also have benefits for
those with arthritis.

4: Back-up Parking Camera

As fans of 1985's "Witness" will remember, John Book goes to
great lengths to protect the Amish child turned star witness
in a murder case. It stands to reason that he'd work to
ensure the safety of other children in our make-believe
"Witness" sequel, which is why John Book will just love our
next car gadget: back-up parking cameras. According to safety
advocacy group Kids and Cars, two children are killed and 48
children are seriously injured every week because a driver
that was backing up didn't see them. It's not that these
drivers are lazy or bad people, it's just that there's
a blind spot when a car is reversing that's perfect for
unknowing children to play in.

Enter back-up parking cameras. These cameras send live images
of what's behind the car to a screen on the dashboard; the
image comes up as soon as the driver puts it into reverse.
And even if no children, pets or bad guys are hiding behind
your vehicle, it still provides a handy way to parallel park
perfectly or to back your vehicle up to a trailer hitch. This
is a gadget that comes ready-installed in some vehicles, but
wireless and wired versions are available as well.

3: Bluetooth

Uh-oh, a bad guy is calling our modern-turned-Amish-turned-
modern-again hero John Book with his ransom demands, but John
Book is driving in a state where it's illegal to answer
a cell phone unless he's using a hands-free device. Bluetooth
to the rescue! While the John Book of old would have used
a pay phone, now he doesn't have to leave the comfort of his
car to take and make important phone calls. But since safety
is still our hero's No. 1 priority, he uses a Bluetooth
hands-free unit.

Bluetooth is a wireless signal that allows compatible devices
to communicate with each other. In this instance, John Book
has the gadgets that make his car and his phone sync up. Some
cars come equipped with Bluetooth, though it's also possible
to buy a receiver that makes your car a hands-free calling
zone. Once connected, drivers can make phone calls simply by
saying the name of the person they're trying to call. They
hear the other person speak through the car's speakers.

2: Navigation System

The old days of reading a map or driving around in circles
are over -- with a navigation system, you can get
turn-by-turn directions from Point A to Point B. When you
plug in a start and end point, a navigation device uses
information from governmental positioning satellites to get
you where you want to go. Just follow the prompts of your
friendly guide (some models let you pick the voice!) and
you're on your way. This gadget can span the spectrum of
price points, with less expensive models that can be attached
to a dashboard to higher priced options that are factory
installed. Some navigation gadgets also include MP3 players
and directories to help you find the nearest pizza joint.

Now, if you've been in the Amish community since the
mid-1980s, which is the assumption we're making about John
Book, then you likely think of real-time traffic information
as a person yelling out that cows are in the road. But
real-time information, of the sort that could help you plan
an alternate route home, is the next step for these handy
gadgets. Soon, your navigation system will be able to
determine car accidents on your route home or re-route you to
avoid holiday traffic.

1: iPod Connections

In "Witness," John Book makes a joke that none of the Amish
get when he references a coffee commercial. But with all the
car gadgets that play music, no one ever has to hear
a commercial again. One example is satellite radio, which
offers more channels than you can shake a stick at and is
available for a monthly subscription rate. (There's even an
80s music option for John Book.)

But many people have already made a musical commitment to
their iPods, and they want to be able to take that music
anywhere, even their cars. An MP3 player connection is
becoming standard in many vehicles, but some car makers are
going specifically after those Apple fans. An iPod-specific
connection allows the driver to select iPod tracks through
the car's stereo system, sometimes from the steering wheel
itself.